ferred to as Erysimum are now included in other genera, as Sisymbrium and Alliaria (q.v.).

An

ER'YSIP'ELAS (Lat., from Gk. épvolπeλas, from epvo, erysi-, variant of épv@pós, erythros, red, Lat. ruber, rufus, Eng. red, Ger. rot, Ir. ruad, OChurch Slav. rūdrů, Skt. rudhira, red + Téλλn, pelle, skin, Lat. pellis, Eng. fell, Ger. Fell, Lith. plève, skin), or SAINT ANTHONY'S FIRE. inflammatory disease of the skin and subcutaneous tissues, attended by diffused redness and swelling of the part affected, and in the end either by desquamation or by vesication of the cuticle, or scarf skin, in the milder forms, and by suppuration of the deeper parts in the severer varieties of the disease (phlegmonous erysipelas). Erysipelas affects, in a large proportion of instances, the face and head; it is apt to be attended with a high fever and often with delirium and meningitis. Severe or. phlegmonous erysipelas is apt to be succeeded by protracted and exhausting suppurations, and sometimes by diseases of the bones or inflammations of the internal organs. Erysipelas is frequently an epidemic disease in surgical hospitals, especially on the field of battle. (See EPIDEMIC.) It is dangerously infectious. The treatment is supportive-tonics, such as iron, strychnine, and quinine; antiseptic dressings, and occasionally incisions in deep erysipelas with tension or suppuration. Specific vaccines have proved valuable aids in the cure. Streptococcus erysipelatis, identical with Strep tococcus pyogenes, is the causative germ. The presence of the bacteria in the subcutaneous tissues causes redness of the overlying skin and more or less infiltration of the tissues with serum, or with serum and pus. See ICHTHYOL; ANTHONY, SAINT, FIRE OF.

The

ER'YSIPHA'CEÆ. The family of mildews. See MILDEW.

ER'YTHEMA (Neo-Lat., from Gk. épvonua, redness, from épv@aiveiv, erythainein, to redden, from epv0pós, erythros, red). A term which has been loosely applied to many different diseases. In its correct usage it denotes not a disease, but a symptom, viz., a local congestion (or hyperæmia) accompanied with superficial redness, which disappears under slight pressure. (Whitehouse.) Simple erythema consists of patches of rose, scarlet, or deep-purplish red, in spots, rings, or irregular patterns, or in areas with faint margins. There are heat and tingling, rarely tenderness. Heat, cold, friction, and pressure, bites and stings, irritant substances and chemicals, comprise the external causes; while rheumatism, drugs, toxin produced during fever or indigestion, and reflex nerve action are the principal internal causes. In inflammatory erythema there is an exudation, with elevation of the red surface and sometimes an extravasation of blood. (See CHILBLAIN; FROSTBITE.) There may be papules, vesicles, or irregular markings, nodules or blood blisters (erythema exudativum multiforme, Hebra). There may be fever, gastric symptoms, coated tongue, followed by pain and swelling about the joints, especially in the lower extremities, with the formation of nodes along the shins and tops (dorsa) of the feet; this constituting erythema nodosum. Erythema venenatum is a form due to exposure to poisonous plants. Erythema solare is another term for sunburn. Regulation of digestion, diuretics, alkaline solutions, oil inunctions, and protective powders or ichthyol are useful in the treatment in conjunction with

the removal of the immediate cause, where this can be determined.

ERYTH'IA. One of the Hesperides (q.v.). ERYTHRÆ’A. See CENTAURY.

ERYTHRÆA. See ERITREA.

ERYTHRÆ'AN SEA (Lat. Mare Erythræum, Gk. ǹ épv0pà láλaσoa, the red sea). In ancient geography, a name applied to an expanse of the Indian Ocean, including the Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf. Later geographers restricted the name to the Arabian Sea.

ERʼYTHRITE. A hydrous arsenate of cobalt occurring in monoclinic prisms, in drusy, incrustating forms and in earthy pink crusts upon other cobalt minerals. It is usually crimson red to peach red in color, from whence it derives the common name of cobalt bloom. Erythrite occurs in Saxony, Baden, Norway, and in Pennsylvania, Nevada, and California. It has recently been found at Cobalt, Canada. ERYTHRO'NIUM (Neo-Lat., from Gk. ¿pvOpóviov, erythronion, the name of some plant, from épv@pós, erythros, red), DOG's-TOOTH VIOLET, or ADDER'S-TONGUE. A genus of bulbousrooted plants of the family Liliaceæ, found in the light, rich soil of cool, moist, but not densely shaded woods of the north temperate zone. Nine species with numerous well-marked varieties are indigenous in British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon; one in the Rocky Mountains from Colorado to California; four in eastern North America, and four in the Old World. In early spring two radical leaves, often handsomely mottled, appear; between them is a naked scape bearing one or several flowers with more or less reflexed petals, whose colors range in some species through various shades of yellow to white, in others from greenish to lavender and reddish tints. Erythronium grandiflorum (for illustration, see Plate of CALIFORNIA FLORA and Plate of MONOCOTYLEDONS), one of the Pacific coast species, has unmottled leaves, produces 1-5 very bright yellow flowers on each scape. Erythronium americanum, of which there are several varieties, is the commonest species east of the Mississippi. (For illustra-tion, see Plate of LILIACEÆ.) The name "adder's-tongue" is also applied to the fern Ophioglossum vulgatum.

ERYTHROPHYLL (from Gk. épv@pós, erythros, red + øúλλov, phyllon, leaf). A name formerly applied to the red pigments appearing in leaves in autumn. See ANTHOCYAN; COLOR IN PLANTS.

ERYTHROSIN. See COAL-TAR COLORS.
ERYTHROX'YLON. See COCA.

E'RYX (Lat., from Gk. "Epu§). An ancient city and mountain in the western part of Sicily. The mountain is now known as Monte San Giuliano. The summit was occupied by a famous shrine of Venus Erycina. During the first Punic War it was held by Hamilcar Barca.

ERZBERG, ĕrts'běrk. See EISENERZ. ERZERUM, ĕr'z'-room', or ERZEROUM. The capital of the vilayet of the same name in Turkish Armenia, situated on a plain 6000 feet above the sea level (Map: Turkey in Asia, D 2). There are a number of mosques, baths, and mausoleums. Its fortifications have been renewed since 1864. Erzerum is famous for its copper and iron ware as well as for its shawls and carpets. The industries, however, have declined considerably on account of emigration and the turbulent state of the country. Its commerce, which was mostly with Persia, has

diminished since the completion of the Transcaucasian Railway, over which route the trade between Persia and Europe is mainly carried. The population is variously estimated at from 43,000 to 80,000, half of whom are Turks, the rest being Armenians, Persians, and Greeks. It is the seat of several consular representatives.

Erzerum is an ancient town. Its Armenian name was Garin Khalakh. Near it stood the old Syro-Armenian town of Arsen. When the Seljuks captured this place, the inhabitants fled to a fortress at Erzerum, which the Seljuks accordingly called Arsen-er-Rum, i.e., Arsen of the Romans (or Byzantines), whence the modern Erzerum. In 1201 it fell into the hands of the Seljuks; of the Mongols in 1242; and finally, in 1517, into those of the Turks. In the War of 1828-29, between the Turks and the Russians, the taking of Erzerum by the latter decided the campaign in Asia. Érzerum was an important military centre during the War of 1877-78 and held out against the Russians, who were allowed to occupy it at the close of the war. In October, 1878, it was returned to the Turks.

ERZGEBIRGE, ĕrts'ge-ber'ge (Ger., Ore Mountains). A mountain range of Europe, extending along the boundary line between Saxony and Bohemia (Map: Germany, E 3). It stretches southwest and northeast for a distance of about 100 miles, from the Elster Mountains on the southwest to the Elbsandstein Mountains on the northeast. It has a breadth of about 25 miles and rises abruptly on the south side, while the north side slopes gradually and contains many well-cultivated and fertile valleys. The highest peak, the Keilberg, is 4060 feet high, while the average elevation is about 2500 feet. The Elbe receives the drainage from both sides of the watershed-on the south through the Eger, and on the north chiefly through the Mulde. The range is crossed by numerous passes and railway lines. The forests are very extensive and the climate is somewhat rigorous. The summer air is, however, invigorating, and many resorts, such as Kipsdorf and Bärenfels, are found among the mountains. The main central mass is gneiss, with mica schist on the northern slope, but with some crops of eruptive rocks. The mineral deposits from which the range takes its name are of great importance. Silver was found in the Erzgebirge as early as the twelfth century, and lead, copper, tin, iron, nickel, and cobalt have been mined for a long time. Large deposits of coal are also found, and the industrial importance of Saxony and Bohemia is due to a large extent to the mineral wealth of the Erzgebirge.

ERZINGAN, ĕr'zing-an. The capital of a sanjak in the Vilayet of Erzerum, Asiatic Turkey, on the Sivas-Erzerum road, 86 miles southeast of Erzerum (Map: Turkey in Asia, D 2). It is 3900 feet above sea level, on the western fringe of a fertile plain watered by the western Euphrates. It is an important garrison town, and its chief features are the modern government buildings, extensive barracks, and military hospital. There are also a fine mosque, a good bazaar, an Armenian teachers' seminary, and Armenian schools for juveniles. With the exception of the main thoroughfare, the streets are narrow and dirty. There are manufactures of silk, cotton, canvas, and copper ware, and in the vicinity are government tanneries and clothing factories. Agriculture is

well developed, cereals and fruit being largely grown on the surrounding plains. The Arsinga of mediæval times, it was a place of importance as early as the fourth century. There are now, however, few traces of its antiquities. It was almost totally destroyed by an earthquake in 1784. Pop., about 18,000, of whom about onehalf are Mohammedans and the rest Armenian Christians.

In

E'SARHAD'DON (Assyr. Asur-ah-iddina, Asur has given a brother). A King of Assyria who succeeded his father, Sennacherib, and reigned 681-668 B.C. He had been placed over Babylonia during his father's lifetime and by a special decree had been declared heir to the throne. In consequence perhaps of this favoritism shown to a son who was not the eldest, Sennacherib was murdered by two of his sons, Sharezer and Adarmalik (2 Kings xix. 36-37). The Babylonian chronicle, however, makes mention of only one son as the assassin. Proclaiming himself Governor of Babylonia, Esarhaddon set out in hot haste to avenge his father's death. The war, which is noted in the Babylonian chronicle as an interregnum, lasted less than a year, and at the end of that time Esarhaddon was able to declare himself King of Assyria. His reign was full of military campaigns. He conducted successful operations against the Chaldæans. the west Sidon was captured and razed to the ground. Tyre he tried to take, but failed. most important enterprise was an attack upon Egypt. In two campaigns (673 and 670 B.C.) Egypt was taken and reorganized under Assyrian rule. It was Esarhaddon's misfortune that during his time began the series of attacks from the north which finally ended in the fall of Assyria, but he did all he could to check them. In 668 Egypt rebelled, and he set out to chastise the rebels, but died on the way. He showed a great predilection for Babylon, and, granting the people as much independence as was consistent with the recognition of Assyrian supremacy, he planned the rebuilding of the city, which had been destroyed by Sennacherib in 689, and restored it to its former glory. By his wish Samas-sum-ukin was made Governor of Babylonia and Asurbanipal King of Assyria. Despite his numerous wars, he found time for elaborate building enterprises. He is regarded as one of the noblest of the Assyrian kings. See ASSYRIA.

His

ESAU (Heb. Esau, hairy). According to Gen. xxv. 24 ff., the elder son of Isaac and twin brother of Jacob. The rivalry of the two brothers began when they were still in the womb (Gen. xxv. 22). When Esau grew up, he became a "man of the field," as opposed to Jacob, who "dwelt in tents" (Gen. xxv. 27). As the elder son, he was entitled to precedence over Jacob, but sold his birthright to his brother (Gen. xxv. 29, 34). In spite of this he attempted to secure Isaac's dying blessing, which pertained to the birthright; but Jacob circumvented him, and Esau received only a secondary blessing (Gen. xxxvii. 1-40). Esau, now greatly enraged, resolved to kill his brother, and Jacob fled to escape him (Gen. xxxvii. 41, 45); but on Jacob's return from sojourning with Laban, 20 years after, Esau became reconciled to him (Gen. xxxiii. 1-15), and the two brothers later buried their father together (Gen. xxxv. 29).

This narrative is regarded by many scholars as reflecting the history of the Edomites, repre

grade of crime and liable to the same punishment as the prisoner who escapes. This principle applies also to officers who voluntarily permit an escape. If the officer is negligent,

simply, he is guilty of a misdemeanor. When a person is imprisoned under a final judgment in a civil action, his escape renders the sheriff, or officer having him in custody, liable to the plaintiff. Consult the authorities referred to under CRIMINAL LAW.

ESCAPE MENT. That part of the machinery of a watch or clock by which the onward revolv ing motion produced by the moving power, whether weights or spring, is restrained by the time-measuring element, such as the pendulum or balance wheel. The latter allows one tooth of the last wheel in the train of gears to escape or pass the pallets of the escapement at each swing or oscillation. See CLOCK; WATCH.

ESCAPE WARRANT. A warrant authorized by English statutes of 1702 and 1706 for the better preventing of escapes from the Queen's Bench and Fleet prisons. At present it is employed but rarely. A new warrant is not necessary for the rearrest of an escaped prisoner; but the person from whose custody he escapes may pursue and retake him, and may, after notice of his errand and refusal of admittance, break open doors or windows in order to effect the recapture.

ESCARP, or SCARP (Fr. escarpe, It. scarpa, from Fr. escarper, It. scarpare, to cut steep). The side or slope of the ditch next to the parapet. When the ditch of a permanent fortification is dry, the escarp is usually faced with mason work, to render it difficult of ascent; and behind this facing, technically known as revet ment (q.v.), there are often casemates (q.v.) for defense. See FORTIFICATION.

ESCARPMENT. See CLIFF.

ESCAUT, A'sko'. The French name for the river Scheldt (q.v.).

ESCHAR, és’kär (OF. escare, Lat. eschara, Gk. éoxapa, eschara, scab). A slough or portion of dead or disorganized tissue. The name is commonly applied to artificial sloughs produced by the application of caustics (q.v.).

ESCHATOLOGY, és′ká-tõl′ô-jí (from Gk. čơxaros, eschatos, last +-Xoyia, -logia, account, from Xeyew, legein, to say). The doctrine concerning man's existence after death, the future of nations, and the final condition of the world. Even on the lower stages of religious develop ment speculation upon the things to come is not wholly limited to the fate of the individual. The shifting fortunes of war and the varying success in obtaining supplies give rise to anxious or hopeful thoughts of what may befall the tribe. Devastating floods, fires, cyclones, earthquakes, or volcanic eruptions, and terror-inspiring eclipses of the heavenly bodies suggest the possibility of a destruction of the world. But the higher forms of eschatological thought presuppose a more complex social organism and a closer observation of natural phenomena. It is especially myths of astrological origin that furnish material for highly developed eschatologies, and oppression by nations aspiring to world empire that supplies the impulse. Hope of deliverance from galling political servitude springs from a proud and outraged national consciousness, kept alive by the memory of past greatness, and dreams of empire are born of the example set by mighty conquerors and rulers holding nations in subjection. Only prolonged observa

tion of the movements of the planets and the sun's course through the signs of the zodiac can render possible the thought of a reoccurrence at the end of the present period of the events connected with the world's origin, and a renovation of the world after its destruction. Along the different lines of eschatological speculation there is, therefore, a general development reflecting the growth of man's intellectual and moral perceptions, his larger social experience, and his expanding knowledge of nature. The outward forms, however, vary according to the character of the environment and the peculiar genius of each people, and are also influenced by the relative value accorded to the individual and to the nation or the world. It is seldom that an eschatological idea is found in any people that is without a parallel among other nations, but it is equally rare that the same idea occurs in exactly identical form in different systems of religious thought.

Belief in a survival of the spirit or double, conceived as a material substance, in connection with the dead body as its local habitation as long as food and drink are furnished, gives little opportunity for the imagination. As, with the advance of civilization, the great cosmic forces come into prominence as objects of worship, and the departed spirits are brought into connection with them, the life beyond grows richer; and as the peculiar tribal customs establish a standard of right and the effects of conformity are observed, the spirits themselves are made subject to the same laws of retribution, and a judgment after death is introduced. Through this twofold development the future life may thus be spiritualized and assume a moral character, as in ancient Egypt. But it is also possible for the old conception of a shadowy existence in the grave or a subterranean realm to retain its hold in the main, while a way out of it into larger life, with moral distinctions, is found in the thought of a restoration and reanimation of the old body, thus insuring personal identity, as in Persia and Judæa. Or the spirit may be conceived of as entering immediately upon death into another body, to live again and die and become reincarnated in ever new forms, as in India. This doctrine of metempsychosis renders it possible to introduce into the future life the nicest moral adjustments, implying at once punishments and rewards for conduct in a previous stage of existence and the possibility of rising or sinking in the scale of being according to present conduct. In spite of the perfect justice thus regarded as being administered on every stage of being, this never-ending series of birth's and deaths may come to appear as an evil, if the present life seems such, and deliverance may then be sought from the infinite wheel of existence in Nirvana. Still another possibility presents itself, when the functions of the mind are considered as indicating a purely spiritual essence independent of the body, having no beginning and no end, as in Greece. This abstract conception of immortality may be made the philosophical basis of a hope for a more concretely conceived personal life after death. For further details of this phase of eschatology, see IMMORTALITY.

The ideas held by different nations as to the future of the human race and the world are only imperfectly known to us. It would, of course, be quite wrong to suppose that such notions have been cherished only where we are fortunate

enough to have testimony as to their existence, or that they have held a place in the life of nations proportionate to their prominence in such literary remains or other accounts as we may possess. But certain inferences can be drawn from the type of eschatological thought that comes to view. When the belief in a coming destruction of the world by a fire or a flood is found among uncivilized tribes in the Pacific, or American aborigines, it is not likely that it originated in astronomical speculation, but rather that it was engendered by some terrifying experience of the past. Though the medium through which the accounts have come makes them somewhat doubtful, it is not impossible that the Spaniards found in Central America the belief in the coming of a white conqueror. If so, the history of the great American civilizations had prepared men for the possibility of the overthrow even of an ancient kingdom, and this apprehension had been fused with the vague rumor of white men who had once settled in the New World. The notion of four great periods of the world, each lasting hundreds of years and ending in a universal conflagration, also presupposes a longer historic development. The remarkable stability of the Chinese Empire and the practical disposition of its people preclude the development of a flourishing eschatology. On the other hand, the brooding genius of India cares little for political independence and is too deeply impressed with the infinite to have its attention absorbed by possible catastrophic changes in the world. There are no last things to claim enthusiastic interest in a pantheistic philosophy that sees in every form of life a manifestation of the divine. But the infinite stretches of divine sway are divided into periods; and these kalpas, or epochs, give an eschatological perspective. In the main, however, it is the future of the individual only that occupies the mind of Brahmin and Buddhist alike. Quite different was the attitude of the ancient Iranians. Those who adopted the teachings of Zarathustra seem early to have developed the simple notion of a coming destruction of the world by fire into the idea of a great moral ordeal. As an individual may prove the truth of his religion by undergoing an ordeal of fire, so at the end of the world the worshipers of the lord Mazda will be distinguished from all others by successfully enduring the ordeal of molten metal, and the good will then be recompensed. This conception is found in the Gathas, the earliest part of the Avestan literature. It is not certain that the idea of a resurrection from the dead goes back to the period represented by the Gathas. But Herodotus seems to have heard of such a Persian conception in the fifth century B.C., and Theopompus, the historian of Philip of Macedonia, described it as a Mazdayasnian doctrine in the fourth century B.C., in a work of which excerpts have been preserved by Diogenes Laërtius and Æneas of Gaza. Whether the resurrection was already at that time connected with the coming of the Saoshyant is uncertain. In the later Avesta it is distinctly the work of the Saoshyant to raise the dead. A final revelation of character, a brief period of punishment in a hell, and an ultimate restoration of all to blessedness, are here assumed. Characteristic of Mazdaism is the idea of a gradual evolution towards a rational and moral end, and of the preparation for this end by the work of the faithful. The world is conceived as lasting

12,000 years. The appearance of Zarathustra falls at the beginning of the last quarter, and at each of the following millenniums one of the three sons of Zarathustra is born, the last of these being Astvatereta, the "restorer of the bodies," or Saoshyant, "the savior." This savior has no political character. After the final conquest of the serpent, Azi Dahaka, the reign of immortality begins. During the period in which the native religion was suppressed and gradually crowded out of its home by Islam, the hope of the persecuted turned to the future, as the apocalyptic sketches in the Pahlavi literature show, and the return of the old King Kai Khosru was ardently desired. The Homeric poems and Hesiod show how the Greek mind occupied itself with the soul's future in the Elysian fields or the darker realms of Hades. Through the Orphic and Eleusinian cults this thought was deepened, and the Christian doctrines of heaven (q.v.) and hell (q.v.) are largely due to Greek speculation. That the future of nations and the world also played an important rôle in Greek thought is evident from the prophecies of the Sibyls. For while the original Sibylline Oracles have not been preserved, the references to them by Heraclitus and Plato reveal their character, and this is also indicated by the imitations in our present Sibylline Oracles. The same source betrays the eschatological thought of the Romans. Some details of Vergil's description of the golden age may indeed have been borrowed from our Pseudo-Sibyl, herself reminiscent of Isaiah; but it is quite likely that the conception itself goes back to a genuine Roman origin. An eschatological mood dominates the epoch ushered in by Alexander's conquests, and Græco-Roman thought is fused with Oriental speculation in the outlook upon the world's future as in other respects. In a similar manner the Scandinavian idea of a destruction of the earth by fire and its subsequent renovation under higher heavens, to be peopled by the descendants of Lif and Liftraser, as set forth in Völuspa, no doubt reflects a primitive Germanic conception. Even the twilight of the gods may have belonged to the original myth. But the picture has unquestionably been retouched by Christian hands.

Among the Semitic nations none has probably contributed more largely to the common stock of later eschatological material than the people of ancient Babylonia. Their creation myth and astrology, based on careful observations of the celestial bodies, furnished events to be expected and foretold when times and seasons might be looked for. Nevertheless, such of their literary remains as have been discovered and examined do not permit us to determine what the Babylonians themselves thought of the world's future. It is among peoples to some extent dependent upon their civilization that we find the Marduk-Tiamat myth transferred from the beginning to the end of the world, and the millennial periods of the world's course elaborated. In early Israel the "Day of Yahwe" was a day of battle deciding the fortunes of a people. If the masses looked forward to it as a day of deliverance and victory, men like Amos and Hosea, Isaiah and Micah, Zephaniah and Jeremiah, feared that, the moral conditions being what they were, the advance of Assyria would bring destruction, complete or well-nigh complete, to Israel and Judah. They were prophets of doom. To one of the greatest among them, Jeremiah, this solemn forecast of coming judg