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ment was the criterion of true prophethood. In later times the books containing their oracles were interpolated with prophecies of coming prosperity, which neither reflect their moral attitude nor are in harmony with their historic circumstances. But they are themselves significant signs of the expansion of eschatological hopes. The establishment of the Achæmenian Empire aroused among the Jews expectations of a return from Babylon, the restoration of the temple, and improved social conditions, as Isa. xl-xlviii indicates. During the numerous insurrections that marked the beginning of the reign of Darius Hystaspis, Haggai and Zechariah fanned the hopes of Judæan independence under a descendant of the old Davidic house, the present Governor of Judæa, Zerubbabel (q.v.); and Jer. xxx-xxxi apparently shows that this hope still lived after the death of Zerubbabel and found new nourishment in the great conflict between Persia and Greece. Alexander's phenomenal career, widening the horizons of men, inspired in Judæa, as elsewhere, serious thoughts concerning the destiny of nations. But the strongest impulses to eschatological speculation were furnished by the religious persecution under Antiochus IV Epiphanes and the Maccabean revolt. The Book of Daniel, written 165 B.C., voices the hope that the kingdom of the world will be given to the saints of the Most High, i.e., the Jewish people. Its celestial representative, probably Michael, after the destruction of the beast representing the Greek kingdom, comes with the clouds and receives the empire of the world. There is no Messiah in this apocalypse. The first distinct appearance of this deliverer and king is in the Psalms of Solomon, written soon after the conquest of Palestine by Pompey, in 63 B.C. (See MESSIAH.) During the century that lay between the Maccabean uprising and the final loss of independence to the Romans, the eschatological hopes centred upon the Asmonæan princes, by whom the conquest of the world was expected, as many a psalm in the Psalter testifies. The longing for a descendant of the Davidic line who would break the Roman yoke, establish the empire of the Jews, and rule as a righteous king over the subject nations, grew strong enough in the first century of our era to cause the rebellion that in 70 A.D. led to the destruction of Jerusalem. When Jesus proclaimed the coming of the kingdom of heaven, it is natural therefore that, in spite of His disavowal, He should be understood by some to be a claimant to the kingship of the Jews. Attracted by His wonderful personality, from love of Him and faith in the prophetic word, His disciples were filled with the conviction that He would return as the Messiah upon the clouds of heaven. Apocalyptic writings, such as Fourth Ezra (see ESDRAS, BOOKS OF), Enoch xxxvii-lxxi (see ENOCH, BOOKS OF), and the Jewish originals utilized and expanded in Matt. xxiv (Mark xiii, Luke xxi) and the Revelation of John, show that even in circles where the hopes of the future did not attach themselves to the personality of Jesus, the Messianic idea grew more and more transcendent. It is not probable, however, that the final judgment and the raising of the dead were ever conceived by an adherent of the Jewish faith as functions of the Messiah. While on many points the eschatological ideas of the early Church were far from being fixed, it seems to have been quite generally believed that the end

of the world was approaching; that it would be heralded by angelic trumpet blasts and ushered in by the descent of Jesus as the Messiah from heaven to establish His kingdom; that the living saints would then be translated and the dead in Christ raised to reign with Him for 1000 years; and that after the final conflict with evil the last judgment would be held, the present world would be destroyed by fire, and there would be a new heaven and a new earth in which righteousness should dwell. As Christianity spread, through missionary activity or military conquests, the Kingdom of God was identified with the Church, the doctrine of the millennium was largely abandoned, and eschatology occupied itself chiefly with the future of the individual in heaven, purgatory, or hell. The great creeds of Christendom, however, affirmed the belief in a return of the Son of God to judge the quick and the dead, and a resurrection of the just and the unjust. There does not seem to be sufficient documentary evidence to support the general assumption that about the year 1000 A.D. there was a widespread belief in the impending end of the world. But the famous hymn,

Dies iræ, dies illa

Solvet seclum in favilla, Teste David cum Sibylla,

leaves no doubt either as to the eschatological mood of medieval Christianity or as regards the source whence it was nourished. And of this there is testimony in the numerous apocalypses that grew up. It is natural that the biblical language concerning the millennium in Rev. xx and the destruction of the world by fire in 2 Peter should have occupied many minds. The more radical religious movement of the Renaissance period was strongly impregnated with eschatological thought. In the Baptist and anti-Trinitarian churches ardent expectations of the establishment of the kingdom of heaven on earth went hand in hand with the rejection of sacramental magic, devil, and hell, and prac tical attempts at founding a new social order, with hopes for the ultimate restoration of all souls after a period of unconscious sleep or limited punishment. In the great Lutheran, Anglican, and Reformed churches the rejection of the doctrine of a purgatory and of the intercession of the Virgin and the saints fixed man's destiny irrevocably at death, and therefore tended to render the closing scenes of judgment and resurrection of less practical importance, to eliminate the premillennial coming of Christ, and to make the millennium the result of a longcontinued development of Christian life. By an allegorical method of interpretation the natural import of biblical language was lost and scriptural support found for the new outlook upon the future. Since the days of the French Revolution and the career of Napoleon there have been repeated outbursts of eschatological enthusiasm. Where the reaction against allegorical interpretation has not led to the adoption of a historico-critical method, the belief that all biblical prophecies will be fulfilled has engendered an ingenious system of exegesis by which the things expected by the Jews of the Maccabean period or the early Christians to occur in their own lifetime are transferred to the interpreter's own immediate future, some starting point for the new cycle of fulfillments being arbitrarily chosen. Thus, an independent eschatologica) speculation not unlike that of old

ESCHATOLOGY

may flourish under cover of biblical authority, and keep alive the expectation of impending judgment upon sin and fundamental changes in man's life and the interpretation of history in the light of eternal purposes.

Es

Islam adopted from Judaism and Christianity the doctrines of a coming judgment, a resurrection of the dead, and everlasting punishments with Persian Later contact and rewards. thought greatly enriched its eschatology. pecially important was the thought of a reincarnation of some great representative in the past of Allah or His prophets. Again and again the world of Islam has been stirred by the expectation of some Imam or Mahdi to reveal more fully the truth or to lead the faithful into Iran and a better social condition on earth. Africa have been most fertile in such movements. In modern Judaism the return of Israel to its land, the coming of the Messiah, the resurrection of the dead, and everlasting retribution are still expected by the orthodox, while liberals look upon Israel's mission as connected with the regeneration of the human race, and hope for an immortal life independent of the resuscitation of the body.

83

The criterion of exact science is its capacity to In this lies to a large predict future things. extent the convincing force of astronomical theories through which our modern estimate of the A science universe has been chiefly formed. that unfailingly foretells future events furnishes a new eschatology by suggesting that the earth's life is but an episode in the never-beginning and never-ending course of nature, and that, barring accidents, this planet must one day end its separate existence in the arms of its celestial parent, the sun. History, in its widest sense, teaches that the future of the human race must grow out of its present life, and that the conditions of humanity, whatever new revolutions may come, are not to be affected by cataclysmic changes wrought from without, but by forces By observation of already operating within. present tendencies it seems to many thinkers possible to predict that warfare will cease; that arbitration will take its place as a means of зettling international differences; that competition and monopoly, with the extremes of wealth and poverty to which they give rise, will yield to public administration of industry and commerce for the public good, or some form of cooperation involving a more equitable distribution of the bounties of nature and the products of common toil; that ignorance will be reduced by universal education fitting each individual for the highest service he can render to society; that disease and criminality will be stamped out by preventive and remedial measures; that the conflict between rival sects and religions will end in a fellowship no longer based upon creed or cultic performance, but upon a common interest in the pursuit of truth and righteousness; and that thus the chief blessings associated with the millennium will come, not through a radical change in man's nature wrought by supernatural power, but by a gradual amelioration of the race. Eschatological speculation of this character, already seen in Plato's Republic and Thomas More's Utopia, has taken a strong hold upon the present generation. In the effort to realize the eschatological dreams of human society as it ought to be by strengthening the movements of thought and life that tend in the right direction, compensation is found by many

for the silence of science concerning a survival
of the individual, while they are ready to wel-
come any light that may be shed upon the
See HEAVEN; HELL; IM-
mystery of death.
MORTALITY; INTERMEDIATE STATE; JUDGMENT,
FINAL; MILLENNIUM.
Bibliography. An extensive bibliography of
the older literature by Ezra Abbot may be found
in Alger, A Critical History of the Doctrine of
a Future Life (New York, 1871). Consult the
works on biblical theology, such as Oehler,
Schultz, Dillman, Stade, Marti, Henry Preserved
Smith (1914), for the Old Testament; Baur,
Schmidt, Oosterzee, Meyer, Weiss, Beyschlag,
Wendt, Immer, Holtzmann, for the New; Lu-
thardt, Die Lehre von den letzten Dingen (Leip-
zig, 1861); Stade, Die alttestamentlichen Vor-
stellungen vom Zustande nach dem Tode (ib.,
1877); Newman Smyth (trans.), Dorner on the
Future State (New York, 1883); Jeremias, Die
babylonisch-assyrischen Vorstellungen vom Leben
nach dem Tode (Leipzig, 1887); Schwally, Das
Leben nach dem Tode (Giessen, 1892); Toy, Ju-
daism and Christianity (Boston, 1892); Kabisch,
Eschatologie des Paulus (Göttingen, 1893);
Salmond, The Christian Doctrine of Immortality
(Edinburgh, 1897); Smend, Alttestamentliche
(Freiburg, 1893); Marti,
Religionsgeschichte
Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (Strass-
burg, 1897); Charles, Critical History of the
Doctrine of a Future Life (London, 1899); Beet,
Last Things (ib., 1897); Russell, The Parousia
(ib., 1887); S. Davidson, Doctrine of Last
Things (ib., 1900); Söderblom, La vie future
d'après le mazdéisme à la lumière des croyances
pareilles dans les autres religions (Paris, 1901);
Böklen, Die Verwandtschaft der jüdisch-christ-
lichen mit der parsischen Eschatologie (Göttin-
gen, 1902); Gressmann, Ursprung der israel-
itisch-jüdischen Eschatologie (ib., 1905); Guy,
Le millénarisme dans ses origines et son dével
Mills,
Judentums
oppement (Paris, 1904); Bousset, Religion des
(2d ed., Berlin, 1906);
Avesta Eschatology (Chicago, 1908); Sharman,
Teaching of Jesus about the Future (ib., 1909);
Dobschütz, Eschatology of the Gospels (Lon-
don, 1910); MacCulloch, Early Christian Vi-
sions of the Other World (Edinburgh, 1912);
Jastrow, Hebrew and Babylonian Traditions
(New York, 1914); Eduard Norden, Eneis buch
VI (Leipzig, 1903).

ESCHEAT (Fr. échoir, from Lat. cadere, to fall out or happen). An incident of feudal tenure of real property, whereby the course of descent from the tenant is obstructed, and the property falls back or reverts to the immediate lord of In the common-law whom the fee is held.

The

system there is, in theory at least, no such thing
as absolute ownership of real property.
most extensive estate which one can have, the
fee simple, is regarded as a derivative or sub-
ordinate estate, held of a superior landlord, to
whom in certain eventualities it will return.
The fact that in process of time most, if not all,
intermediate or mesne lords have been elimi-
nated, and that lands are now held in subordina-
tion only to the state, or, in England, to the
crown, does not vitally affect this principle.
The claim of the state to take lands by escheat
is still based upon the theory of a superior lord-
ship or proprietorship, and the holder of land
in fee simple is still properly described as a
tenant. In order to complete the title acquired
by escheat, it is necessary that the superior
lord shall perform some act, such as entering

and taking possession of the land or bringing an action at law for its recovery. The principle upon which he thus recovers the property is that, since none but those who are of the blood of the person last seised can inherit, and there are no persons of that blood in being and capable of inheriting, the land must result back to the lord of the fee, of whom it is held.

According to the law of England, escheat was either propter defectum sanguinis-i.e., because there were no heirs of the deceased tenant-or propter delictum tenentis-i.e., because the blood of the tenant was attainted or corrupted, so that those who were related to him as heirs could not inherit. Such corruption of blood occurred when the tenant was convicted of treason or felony. The rule applied to all felonies and frequently produced much hardship. This form of escheat was peculiar to English law. It is to be carefully distinguished from forfeiture of lands to the crown for treason or felony, which has prevailed in other countries besides England. When this latter penalty was enforced for the crime of treason, the offender forfeited all his lands absolutely to the crown; when it was enforced for any other felony, the forfeiture to the crown was of all the offender's estates for life absolutely, and of all his estates in fee simple for a year and a day, after which they escheated to his immediate lord. (See FORFEITURE.) In English law escheat as a result of conviction of crime is now abrogated; and all forfeiture for crime, except in cases of outlawry, is abolished. (Statute 33 and 34 Vict., c. 23.) It is provided by the Constitution of the United States that "Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted." (Art. iii, § 3.) This indicates the policy which has molded the laws of the various States, so that escheat as the result of crime is practically unknown in this country.

Though the feudal system of land tenure existed only in its later and mitigated form in the United States, and though it has been expressly declared to be abolished in some of the States, it continues in many important respects to gov ern the real-property law and its incidents. By virtue of statutory provisions, generally found in the State constitutions, the title to the property of one who dies without heirs is still transferred to the State in which it is situated, and this transfer is still denominated an escheat. It is the general rule that a proceeding known as "inquest of office" must be instituted, and an office found in behalf of the State, in order to vest in it the title to a decedent's realty. But this is not required in some of the States. See ESTATE: FFF; REAL PROPERTY; TENURE; and the authorities there referred to.

ESCHENBACH, ësh ́en-bäG, WOLFRAM VON. See WOLFRAM VON ESCHENBACH.

ESCHENBURG, èsh'en-boorK, JOHANN JoACHIM (1743 1820). A German literary critic and translator, born at Hamburg and educated at Leipzig and Göttingen. He became tutor in 1767, professor in 1777, and director in 1814 of the Collegium Carolinum in Brunswick. Besides publishing German translations of English writers, notably the first complete German translation of Shakespeare's plays, Shakespeares thea tralische Werke (13 vols., 1775-82), he wrote, among many, the hymns "Dir trau' ich, Gott, und wanke nicht" and "Ich will dich noch im

Tod erheben," and was author of: Handbuch der klassischen Litteratur, Altertumskunde und Mythologie (1783; 8th ed., 1837); Entwurf einer Theorie und Litteratur der schönen Redekünste (1783; 5th ed., 1836); Beispielsaramlung zur Theorie und Litteratur der schönen Wissenschaften (8 vols., 1788-95); Lehrbuch der Wissenschaftskunde (1792; 3d ed., 1809); Denkmäler altdeutscher Dichtkunst (1799).

ESCHENMAYER, ĕsh'en-mi-er, KARL AUGUST VON (1768–1852). A German metaphysician. He was born at Neuenburg, and was professor of practical philosophy at the University of Tũbingen from 1818 to 1836. He studied and taught philosophy from the standpoint of Schelling (q.v.), his mystical tendency expressing itself in the assertion that one must advance beyond philosophy into nonphilosophy, a realm where not "speculation, but faith," holds sway. He took a deep interest in animal magnetism. His feelings found expression in violent polemics against the theories of Hegel and Strauss and in fanci ful dreams of the spirit world. Among his writings are: Die Philosophie in ihrem Lebergange zur Nichtphilosophie (1803); Psychologie (1817); System der Moralphilosophie (1818); Religionsphilosophie (1818 24); Mysterien des innern Lebens (1830); Grundriss der Naturphilosophie (1832); Betrachtungen über den physischen Weltbau (1852).

ESCHER, èsh'èr, JOHANN HEINRICH ALFRED (1819-82). A Swiss statesman, born at Zurich. He studied law in his native town and at Bonn, Berlin, and Paris. In 1844 he was elected member of the Grand Council of the Canton. Even at that early period his sentiments were decidedly liberal. In January, 1845, together with six others, who shared his opinions, he published the famous summons to the popular assembly in Unterstrass, demanding the expulsion of the

Jesuits. He was elected to the Council of the Interior in 1845 and to the Council of Education in 1846. The reorganization of the schools in the Canton of Zurich was his chief work, and he succeeded in introducing modern methods into the system of secondary education. In December, 1847, he became President of the Grand Council, and the following year he was sent as a deputy to the Federal Diet. In December of the same year he became President of the newly elected Cantonal Administrative Council. His energies were directed to the promotion of education, but he also furthered railway enterprise and banking institutions in Switzerland. He was President of the National Council in 1849. Vice President of the Confederation in 1856-57 and 1861-62, and became subsequently several times President. He died Dec. 6, 1882, at Zurich, where a bronze statue has been raised to his memory. Consult Scherr, Alfred Escher (1883).

ESCHERICH, Ash'er-IK, KARL LEOPOLD (1871- ). A German entomologist, born in Schwandorf and educated at Munich, Würzburg, Leipzig, and Heidelberg. From medicine he turned to zoology and traveled in Tunis (1892), Central Asia Minor (1895), Algeria (1898, 1902), Abyssinia (1906), Ceylon (1910), and North America (1911). In 1901-06 he was privatdocent at Strassburg, and in 1907 became professor in the Forestry Academy at Tharandt. He wrote: Sustem der Lepismatiden (1905); Die Ameise (1906); Ferienreise nach Erythrea (1908); Die Termiten oder weissen Ameisen (1909) and Termitenleben auf Ceyloa

ESCHER VON DER LINTH

(1910), singularly interesting and valuable studies; Die angewandte Entomologie in der Vereinigten Staaten (1913); Die Forstinsekten Mitteleuropas, vol. i (1913).

ESCHER VON DER LINTH, èsh'er fôn der A Swiss lent, HANS KONRAD (1767-1823). statesman, born at Zurich. After study at Göttingen (1786-88) and extensive travel, he was

a

member of the Legislative Assembly of the Helvetian Republic in 1798-1802. In 1798–1801 he edited the Schweizerischer Republikaner. In 1802 he withdrew from politics, and from 1807 to its completion in 1822, as president of the board of inspection, directed the improvement of the Linth, the upper course of the Limmat, by means of a canal. A large tract of land was Escher was thus reclaimed to useful purposes. regarded as a benefactor of the commonwealth, and the surname Von der Linth was officially Consult the granted to his family in 1823. biography (Zurich, 1852) by Hottinger.

ESCHRICHT, ĕsh'rikt, DANIEL FREDERIK (1798–1863). A Danish physiologist and zoölogist. He was born at Copenhagen, studied medicine there, and after practicing as a physician for three years, took a supplementary course in physiology and comparative anatomy in Germany and France. He was professor at Copenhagen from 1836 until his death, when his valuable collection was acquired by the Zoological Museum. His investigations covered an extensive field. Among his principal publications are Haandbog i Physiologie (new ed., 1851) and Folkelige Foredrag (1855-59).

in

85

ESCHSCHOLTZ, ěsh'shôlts, JOHANN FRIEDA Russian naturalist and RICH (1793-1831). traveler. He was born at Dorpat, where he In 1815 he made a tour of studied medicine. the world with Otto von Kotzebue and Adelbert von Chamisso, collecting a great number of zoological specimens and making important scientific investigations. The results of this voyage were published in Kotzebue's Entdeckungsreise die Südsee und Beringstrasse (1821), to a number of which Eschscholtz contributed valuable articles. After his return in 1819 he was appointed extraordinary professor of anatin Dorpat, and in 1823 he again accompanied Kotzebue on a voyage around the world. The extensive collection acquired during these tours was presented by Eschscholtz to the University of Dorpat in 1826. He later published a catalogue of the 2400 animals of this collection in vol. ii of Kotzebue's Neue Reise um die Welt A (1830). botanical species, Eschscholtzia, was named in his honor by Chamisso, and Eschscholtz Bay, an

omy

Sound, achievements

on the coast of Alaska, perpetuates his His principal as an explorer. work is the Zoologischer Atlas, enthaltend Abbildungen und Beschreibung neuer Tierarten (5

parts, 1829-33).

Plate of POPPY AND PEPPER TREE.

tration, see Plate of CALIFORNIA FLORA, and

ESCHWEGE, ĕsh'vâ-ge (mediæval Eskeneweg, Eschinwanch). A town of the Prussian Province of Hesse-Nassau, situated in a fertile valley of the Werra, 25 miles east-southeast of Cassel (Map: Prussia, D 3). It consists of an old and a new town, on the left and right banks of the river respectively, and a suburb on an island connected with the mainland by two stone bridges. The castle, erected about 1386, is now occupied by the district court. The so-called Black Tower is all that remains of the convent founded dustrial centre. It has large tanneries, manuby Charlemagne. Eschwege is an important infactures of woolen, cotton, and linen goods, haircloth, soap, cigars, brushes, shoes, and machines. It has large slaughterhouses and does a large business in pork and sausage. Pop., 1900, 11,117; 1910, 12,542.

A town of the ESCHWEILER, ĕsh'vi'ler. Prussian Rhine Province, on the Inde, about 8 miles northeast of Aix-la-Chapelle (Map: Prussia, B 3). It is the centre of a rich mining district, its coal mines being noted for their great depth and superior quality of product. Cadmium, zinc, copper, and lead are also mined, as they have been from the days of the Romans. The manufactures comprise boiler plate, iron pipe, wire, tin plate, wheels, boilers, machinery, miscellaneous articles of iron, copper, zinc, and lead, confections, belting and leather goods, bricks, malt and beer. Pop., 1900, 21,895; 1910, 24.718.

ESCLOT, BERNAT. See DESCLOT.

He was ac

ESCOBAR Y MENDOZA, ås′kô-Bär' ê měndo'thȧ, ANTONIO (1589-1669). A Spanish Jesuit and casuist, born at Valladolid. cused of founding the doctrine that the moral value of actions lies in the nature of the intention; in other words, that purity of purpose may be justification for actions contrary to the moral code and contrary to human laws. His casuistry was severely criticized in the Provincial Letters of Pascal, and his doctrines were disapproved by many Catholics and gently censured Under the witty by the authorities at Rome. ridicule of such French writers as La Fontaine,

Boileau, and Molière the name of Escobar, a priest of exemplary life, was used for coining

the word escobarderie, a synonym for extreme are Liber Theologiæ Moralis (London, 1646) and Conscientia (Pamplona, laxity in moral principle. Among his writings Summula Casuum

1626).

(1827ESCOBEDO, ås'ko-вã'Do, MARIANO inlet of Kotzebue 1902). A Mexican soldier, born at Dos Arroyos, He was originally a muleteer, Nuevo León. took part in the Mexican War, became prominent in the "War of the Reform," was in 1859 appointed a colonel by Juárez, and contributed largely to the success of the Republican cause. Upon the establishment in Mexico of the ill

ESCHSCHOLTZIA, ěsh-shōlts'i-ȧ (Neo-Lat., named in honor of J. F. Eschscholtz, a Rus

fated Empire of Maximilian, he withdrew to

San Antonio, Tex., organized a republican force made up of Mexican refugees, ex-Confederate soldiers, and negroes, and in 1865 captured the

of the family Papaveraceæ. Eschscholtzia californica, the California poppy, and other species, natives of California and Arizona, have now become very common in our flower gardens, mak- garrison of Monterey. In 1867 he utterly deing a showy appearance with their large deep- feated Miramón at San Jacinto and was appointed commander in chief of the republican armies, with rank of general of division.

yellow flowers.

This plant has a remarkable

calyx, which, much resembling in its form the

On

extinguisher of a candle, separates from the May 15 of that year he took Querétaro and cap

dilated

apex

of the flower stalk and is lifted and

thrown off by the expanding flower. For illus

In 1875-76 tured the Emperor Maximilian. he supported President Lerdo de Tejada against

the revolution under General Diaz, served Lerdo as Minister of War, escaped to New York, and was afterward active in conspiracy against the Diaz government, but in 1882 accepted the office of president of the supreme military court of justice. He retired in 1884.

ESCOIQUIZ, és’kô-ê-kẽth', Juan (1762–1820). A Spanish churchman, politician, and author, born in Navarra or at Bermeo in Biscayaaccounts vary. He became the instructor of the future King Ferdinand VII and gained an ascendancy over his pupil that lasted for many years. After the abdication of Charles IV (1808) Escoiquiz was made Counselor of State; he accompanied Ferdinand to Bayonne and saw him fall into the trap so skillfully set by Napoleon (1808). During the devastating War of the Peninsula he remained in France. Upon the return of the King to power he was made Minister, but soon fell into disgrace, and afterward was exiled to Ronda, where he died. He wrote Idea sencilla de las razones que motivaron el viaje del rey Fernando VII á Bayona (1814), which is an important historical document; and a translation of Young's Night Thoughts (1797) and of Paradise Lost (1813).

ESCOLAR' (Sp. scholar). A mackerel-like fish (Ruvettu pretiosus) of tropical parts of the Atlantic in deep water, and well known in the Mediterranean, where it is called by the Italians roveto or ruvetto. It is not much valued in Europe, but is highly regarded in the Antilles, and especially in Cuba, where the fishermen make a business of catching it between the disappearance of the spear fish and the coming of the red snappers. Its extreme oiliness and its rough skin have caused it to be called oilfish and Scourfish along the Gulf coast. The term "escolar" is applied by ichthyologists to the whole family (Gemyplida) which this fish represents.

ESCORIAL, Span. pron. ĕs-kô-ri-àl' (Sp., from escoria, slag, from Lat. scoria, Gk. okwpia, skória, slag). A celebrated building in Spain (El real monasterio de San Lorenzo del Escorial), comprising a monastery, church, college, tomb, and palace. During the battle of San Quentin, won by the Spaniards on St. Lawrence's Day (Aug. 10), 1557, a church dedicated to that saint was destroyed. In fulfillment of a vow of gratitude to St. Lawrence for the victory, Philip II built the Escorial on a bleak height of that name, 2700 feet above the sea, about 27 miles northwest of Madrid, and dedicated it to St. Lawrence. Begun by the architect Juan Bautista, of Toledo, in 1563, and completed in 1584 by Juan de Herrera, his pupil, it is not only the largest building in Spain, but also the most notable monument of the Griego-Romano style in Spain. Externally without artistic merit except for the fine dome of the church and the picturesque grouping with it of the six towers which vary the silhouette of the whole, it is remarkable for the ingenuity of its vast plan and the grand scale of the church. The Escorial occupies a rectangle of 750 by 580 feet, with a projecting wing on the rear or east side of about 175 by 120 feet, and comprises 13 courts, producing a fancied resemblance to the gridiron of St. Lawrence. The church, which dominates the entire design, fronts on a central court, entered from the west by the main portal, which is opened only to admit the King on his first visit, and a second time to receive his body for burial. The church is a noble design, 340 feet long by 234 wide, cover

ing an area of 70,000 square feet, and crowned by a central dome 70 feet in diameter and 320 feet high externally. The interior of the church is of dark marble; previous to the destructive occupation by the French in 1808 it was rich in works of art. Its chief treasure is a lifesize crucifix of ivory by Benvenuto Cellini (q.v.). From a small room in the adjoining palace wing Philip II, when sick and dying, was accustomed to listen to the celebration of the mass through a grated window opening into the chancel. Below the high altar of the church is the Pantheon, or royal tomb, an octagonal chamber with niches containing black sarcophagi in which rest the bodies of all the kings of Spain since the Emperor Charles V, with the exception of Philip V and Ferdinand VI. The palace of the Escorial was formerly rich in treasures of painting and contained works of Raphael, Rubens, Velasquez, Titian, and Tintoretto. The library, which was under the care of the monks of St. Jerome (driven out by the French), comprised 30,000 volumes and 4500 manuscripts, concerned mostly with Arabic literature. The Augustinian monks have been in charge of the conventual buildings since 1885. The Escorial has suffered many vicissitudes; fire in 1667, plunderings by the French in 1808 and 1813, and severe injury by fire from lightning in 1872 have necessitated extensive repairs.

Bibliography. Los Santos, Descripción del real monasterio de San Lorenzo del Escorial (Madrid, 1657); A. Rotondo, Historia artística

del monasterio de San Lorenzo (Madrid, 1856-61); A. F. Calvert, The Escorial: A Historical and Descriptive Account, etc., with 278 illustrations (London and New York, 1907). The emotional effect produced by the building is well described in C. Quinet, Vacances en Espagne (Paris, 1846); and John Hay, Castilian Days (New York, 1875).

ES'CORT (Fr. escorte, It. scorta, guide, from scorgere, to guide, from Lat. ex, out + corrigere. to correct, from con, together + regere, to direct). In the United States army ceremonial. escorts are of two kinds-escorts of honor and funeral escorts. Escorts of honor are picked bodies of troops, detailed to receive and escort personages of high rank, civil or military. The troops assigned for this duty may be composed of cavalry, artillery, or infantry, but are invariably selected for their soldierly appearance and superior discipline. An officer is also detailed to attend the personage escorted and bear communications from him to the commander of the escort. The strength and character of such escort is largely determined by the status of the personage escorted. Funeral escorts are bodies of troops in numbers appropriate to the rank and grade of the deceased, detailed to attend and escort the funeral cortège, as may be ordered. The United States Army Regulations (1913) order that for the funeral escort of the Secretary of War, or general of the army, a regiment of infantry, a squadron of cavalry, and one battalion of field artillery form the detail; for the Assistant Secretary of War or the lieutenant general, a regiment of infantry, a squadron of cavalry, and a battery of field artillery; for a major general, a regiment of infantry, two troops of cavalry, and a battery of field artillery; for a brigadier general, a regiment of infantry, a troop of cavalry, and a platoon of field artillery; for a colonel, a regiment; a lieutenant colonel or major, a battalion

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