› colonies which did not enter the reciprocity arrangement with nada in 1912 and which in 1920 granted a differential of only e-fourth-had earlier in 1920 granted a differential of 40 per cent cotton goods, or of 50 per cent in case the goods were woven from tton grown within the British Empire." The base rates upon ich these West Indian differentials are reckoned would not be nsidered high in countries which pursue a protective policy, but ey have been going up, the differential in most cases now comes to om 4 to 10 per cent of the value of the goods. Cyprus has estabhed differentials upon all dutiable goods, giving reductions chiefly one-third or one-sixth. These reductions come to 13, 23, or 33 per nt on most classes of manufactures. The differentials in all these riffs, therefore, are relatively small and are still comparable rather ith the South African preferential rate than with the Canadian. e Fijian tariff of 1922 has greater differentials; see page 371. At this time, therefore, general systems of preferential import ities are found in Fiji, in Cyprus and in all the British West Indies; › general systems of differential export duties are found, but in nine lonies such duties are imposed upon one or two products. But hile the export duties are so few in number, and while the duty on alm kernels is directed primarily against German trade and is proessedly only a temporary measure, it must be noted that the rate n palm kernels was intended to be and that on Malayan tin is proibitive. Compared to the differentials in the import duties (which re indeed large enough to give a perceptible advantage to British rade where competition is close), these export duties are drastic and ndicate rather an intention of monopolizing the raw products than of giving a slight though perceptible advantage to British trade. As no colony enforces differentials both in its import duties and n its export duties, there are altogether 26 British colonies (out of he 57 which are considered in this chapter) in which the principle of a differential duty has been accepted by the local government. Since there are at least five colonies in which all tariff differentials are prohibited by treaty 30 and since the imposition of such duties n the free ports would be a complete negation of the policy which as maintained them as free ports, the preferential tariff policy has been inaugurated in a majority of the colonies in which it is feasible to introduce it. This method of statement, however, greatly exaggerates the importance which has already been attained by the movement in favor of imperial preferences, since the 26 includes many small colonies, notably the eight Windward and Leeward Islands, and since the export duties fall on only a small part of the export trade of the colonies in which they are levied. The 17 colonies which enforce differential import duties have, in fact, only about cent 32 of the total import trade of the Crown colonies and India. Differential export duties are found in 9 colonies, including India and others of importance. But important as these colonies are, since the differential export duties are confined to hides and skins, tin ore,

4 per

31

33

The governor proposed a differential also upon woolen goods, but the assembly considered this unnec essary in view of the fact that Great Britain held already a practical monopoly of the local market. 30 Nyasaland, Kenya, Zanzibar, Egypt, and the New Hebrides. Differential import duties are also prohibited in Nigeria and the Gold Coast. For the obligations in regard to the Pacific islands, see p. 78. But see footnote 35, p. 370, for the Straits Settlements.

In 1918 the percentage was 4.3. As these colonies all have free lists, the differential duties are probably not levied upon more than 35 per cent of the total import trade of the Crown colonies and India. Their trade is nearly one-half of the total trade of the colonies under consideration.

and palm kernels, the differentials are leviable upon only some per cent of the total export trade of the Crown colonies and Ind At present, therefore, the principle of preferential tariffs has be applied to only 5 or 6 per cent of the total trade of these colonies None the less, the movement in favor of preferential tariffs is signcant by reason of (1) its comparatively rapid growth. (2) the spec. interests of the United States, and 13 because of the new feature involved in the differential export duties.

(1) Within the last three years the number of these colonies eforcing differential import duties has increased by 8" and of thes enforcing differential export duties by 5: or a total, since there ar no duplicates, of 13 colonies which have accepted the principle preferential tariffs. Further, all the colonies which previously use of differential import duties have increased the range and c of these duties, and other colonies are considering the adopti a preferential tariff policy."

(2) While the trade which has been already affected by the pre ential duties of the Crown colonies and India is only a small fracti of the total, it includes the import trade of the West Indies, which f: geographical reasons offer a natural market for American produ and it includes the trade in Indian hides and skins upon whic American industries are dependent for supplies.

(3) While the differential duties at present are so few, in so Fast an Empire and one which controls the major part of the world's su plies of so many articles the reintroduction, on however limited scale, of the old mercantilist principle of the reservation of colon products to the Mother Country must cause serious concern to the rest of the world.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

(See p. 34 for bibliography of treaty collections, and p. 835 for general works a periodicals.)

Bruce, Sir Charles. The Broad Stone of Empire. London, 1910.

Fuchs, Karl. The Trade Policy of Great Britain and her Colonies since 1860. Ladon, 1905.

Cypru, Bermuda, the Bahamas, British Honduras, Jamaica, Turks and Caicos, and the Virgin Island If the windward and Leeward Islands be grouped as two colonies, and Turks and Caicos be disrega as a dependency of Jamaica, the number of colonies enforcing differential import duties before the was 5 and is now 10, while those enforcing differential export duties have increased from 4 to 9. In Ceylon a committee was appointed in February, 1920, to make plans for "giving effective prefe to articles produced within the British Empire" (Commerce Reports, Feb. 28, 1920), and a similar mittee was appointed in April, 1920;

1) Toinquire into the present tariff of import duties as existing both in the colony [Straits Settlemen and the Federated Malay States, and to advise Government as to the desirability of adopting some s of preferential rates of duty on goods consigned from and grown, produced, or manufactured in the Briki Empire.

(2) To inquire into and report to Government as to the desirability of adopting some scheme of pro tive import duties for the purpose of encouraging the establishment of local industries in either the c or the Federated Malay States."

In the membership of these committees the consumer and the native merchant do not appear; birb committees are composed of officials and British merchants. In the case of the ports of the Straits Settle ments it seems likely that special care will be taken that only imports for consumption are burdened with duties. The conclusions of the committee for British India, which had the question under considerati have been given at length elsewhere. It appears probable that the growing influence of the Indians in the government of that country will result in the introduction of protective duties, but it is highly probee that the British opponents of such protection will secure a compromise by which the full amount of the duties will not be levied upon British products. On the other hand, the preferential duties drafted by the governor of Malta were rejected by the assembly and unfavorable replies were received from Hongk And Sierra Leone to the proposal of the colonial office suggesting the adoption of preferential tariff syste The Government of Ceylon proposed (Ceylon Government Gazette Extraordinary, Sept. 1, 19 preferential tariff for all dutiable imports except foodstuffs, liquors, and tobacco. The chief differential were: Arms and explosives, boots, furniture, jewelry, silks, woolens and mixed goods, cutlery, motor cars, and electrical goods, 10 per cent; other metal wares, 5 per cent or 71 per cent; cotton textiles, 5 per cent unenumerated articles, 5 per cent. These rates became effective Sept. 2, subject to ratification by the legislative council; the new tariff was abandoned, however, and the former rates restored from Sept. 10 (Commerce Reports, Sept. 19, 1921.)

at Britain. Annual Statement of the Sea-borne Trade and Navigation of British India with the British Empire and Foreign Countries. Calcutta, annually. Colonial Office List. London, annually.

Colonial Statistical Tables. London, annually.

Parliamentary Debates.

Report for 1914 on the Federated Malay States by the Resident General. Parliamentary Papers, 1914, Cd. 8155.

Review of the Trade of India. Calcutta and London, annually.

Statistical Abstract for the Several British Self-Governing Dominions, Colonies, Possessions, and Protectorates. London, annually.

Statistical Abstract relating to British India. Calcutta, annually.

Cunath Sarkar. Economics of British India. Calcutta, 1913.

le, V. G. Introduction to Indian Economics. Poona, 1917.

dd, Durant Ferson. Trade and Shipping in West Africa. Wash., 1920. pat Rai.

England's Debt to India. New York, 1917.

e Mineral Industry. New York, annually.

gna, Enrico. Le Régime Douanier de l'Égypte et ses Réformes Possibles, L'Égypte Contemporaine. Cairo, vol. 8.

ot, J. W. Colonial Tariffs. Liverpool, 1906.

rachey, Sir John. India, Its Administration and Progress. London, 1903, 3d ed." vettenham, Sir Frank. British Malaya. London, 1907.

riff Commission (London). The Trade Relations of India with the United Kingdom, British Possessions, and Foreign Countries, pt. 1, 1908.

S. Tariff Commission. Reciprocity and Commercial Treaties. Wash., 1919.

Kenya, Uganda, Nyasaland, and Zanzibar.-In Nyasaland from October 1, 1921, and in the other three East African colonies from August 10, 1921, the general rates were increased as follows: In Zanzibar, from to 10 per cent; in Nyasaland, from 10 to 15 per cent; and in Kenya and Uganda, from 10 to 20 per cent ad valorem. In Kenya, building materials (except timber), cement, chemicals, galvanized iron, scientific nstruments, kerosene, paint, and soap remain dutiable at 10 per cent; rice, wheat, wheat flour, and sugar become subject to a rate of 15 per cent; and wines, tobaccoes, playing cards, jewelry, perfumery, silks, pianos, and gramophones at 30 per cent. The export duty on ivory is raised from 15 to 30 per cent ad valorem. (B. T. J., Aug. 11 and Sept. 22, 1921.)

These rates of import duty in excess of 10 per cent are plainly contrary to the general act of the conference at Berlin, which is still in force. (See p. 401.).

Egypt. The duty on wood (except firewood) has been raised to 10 per cent, and that on benzine and mineral lubricating oils to 15 per cent ad valorem (decree of Mar. 31, 1921). A consumption duty of 2 per cent ad valorem has been imposed upon about 50 articles, including certain acids, vegetable oils, beer, preserved meats, condensed milk, dried fruits, spices, tea, coffee, cocoa, tarred paper, window glass, and iron and steel bars, angles, plates, etc. These duties are leviable upon domestic products as well as upon imports. (Decree of Aug. 1, 1921; Commerce Reports, Oct. 17, 1921.)

India.-An act assented to on September 29, 1921, imposes an export duty on lac at the rate of 4 annas per maund (874 pounds), and at one-half of that rate for refuse lac. The proceeds are to be turned over to the Lac Association for the scientific promotion of the industry..

Jamaica.-On December 7, 1921, the Government introduced a bill to raise the general rate of Jamaica's tariff to 20 per cent ad valorem. This bill provides for a preference of one-fourth upon British andCanadian goods, but the bill continues the rate of 10 per cent upon British cotton piece goods, thus increasing the preference to one-half.

Preferential tariff in Fiji.-On January 1, 1922, a new tariff became effective in the Fiji Islands, containing higher rates and larger differentials than those of any other British Crown Colony. The differentials are granted to products of any part of the British Empire. The free list includes books, periodicals and music, seeds and plants, manures, gas cylinders, and a few other items. On kerosene, gasoline, and sugar there are no differentials. Specific duties are levied on 84 items (chiefly foodstuffs and beverages, but also tobacco, matches, plain soaps, paints, iron, bags, and dynamite) and on these the differential is onehalf, with the exception of coke, upon which the whole of the duty of 26s. 6d. per ton is remitted. On the other 120 items the differential is 124 per cent ad valorem. On most of these items the foreign and the British rates are, respectively, 274 and 15 per cent, so that the differential is somewhat less than one-half of the larger duty; but upon machinery, railway equipment, and lighters the rates are 12 and 10 per cent, respectively, except for certain agricultural machines and implements which are dutiable at 20 and 74 per cent. Coal, films, fresh fruit and vegetables, church furniture, unframed pictures, and a few other articles may be imported free if products of the British Empire, but are otherwise dutiable at 12 per cent

ad valorem.

I. INTRODUCTION.

THE ITALIAN COLONIES.

The Italian colonial empire is of comparatively recent origin and comparatively limited extent. Acquired in its entirety since the mation of the Kingdom of Italy, it has a total area of 591,200 are miles, of which more than two-thirds was acquired less than years ago, and a total population of about 1,700,000. The lonies are three in number: Eritrea, on the Red Sea; Somaliland, the Indian Ocean; and Libia (formerly known as Tripolitania), the Mediterranean-all in Africa.2

The colony of Eritrea originated with the purchase of the port of sab by an Italian steamship company in 1869, the year of the ening of the Suez Canal. The region was not occupied, however, til 1880. Two years later, in 1882, it was turned over to the overnment.3 After many treaties with local chiefs, and with byssinia, Great Britain, and France, the colony attained by 1900 proximately its present boundaries. Two of the most important ents of the history of its development were the occupation of assowa in 1885 and the issuing of the royal proclamation of January , 1890, which designated the Italian possessions on the Red Sea the olony of Eritrea.®

Italian Somaliland includes the colony proper-Somalia Italiana feridionale (Southern Italian Somaliland)-and to the north the Sultanates of Obbia and of the Mijertines (Protectorates), and the erritory of Nogal. The colony proper is often called Benadir, but trictly speaking this name should be confined to the four ports," which, when the rest of the country was taken under Italian sovreignty in 1889, were recognized as the property of the Sultan of Zanzibar.10 These ports were leased by Italy in 1893 and purchased n 1905." Agreements of 1891 and 1894 with Great Britain fixed he boundaries of the spheres of interest of the two countries to the south and north, respectively.12 In 1908 the inland boundary Coward Abyssinia was determined and the country was opened to

After 1911, by conquest from Turkey. The figures for area and population do not include the territory ceded by France to round out the boundaries of Libia, and the proposed cession of Jubaland, south of Somalia.

Italy "temporarily" occupied the Dodecanese Islands, off the coast of Asia Minor, in 1912. See Appendix to this chapter.

Brunialti, Attilio: Le Colonie degli Italiani. Turin, 1897. Gorrini's Appendix, p. 532. Brusa, E.: Das Staatsrecht des Königreichs Italien. Freiburg i. B., 1892, p. 507. Schanzer, Carlo: L'Acquisto delle Colonie e il Diritto pubblico Italiano. Rome, 1912, pp. 61-68, 101-115.

Ministero delle Colonie. Manuale di legislazione della Colonia Eritrea. Edited by Prof. Angiolo Mori. 8 vol. Rome, 1914-15. Cited hereafter as Erit. Man. This manual gives 14 protectorate agreements up to the end of 1890.

Erit. Man.; Vol. III, pp. 440, 570; Vol. IV, pp. 271, 387, 682, 963.

Ibid., Vol. II, p. 5.

7 Law of Apr. 5, 1908, Art. I.

Direzione centrale degli affari coloniali: Manuale di legislazione della Somalia Italiana. 3 vol. Rome 1912-14. (Cited hereafter as Som. Man.) The introduction, pp. 5-17, defines the boundaries of these territories. Cf. Schanzer: Op. cit., pp. 86-87.

9 Tittoni, Tomasso: Italy's Foreign and Colonial Policy, 1914, p. 231. Gov. Giacomo de MartinoLa Somalia Italiana nei Tre Anni del mio Governo, 1912, p. 92. The four ports were Brava, Merka, Mogadisho, and Warsheik.

10 Som. Man., Vol. I, p. 30. Catellani, E.: Les Possessions africaines et le Droit colonial de l'Italie. (In the Revue de Droit International et de Legislation Comparée, Jan., 1885, p. 422.) Catellani, Enrico.: L'Africa nuovo e il diritto pubblico africano. (In the Rivista Italiana de Sociologia, July-Oct. 1907, p. 523.) The lease was signed Aug. 12, 1892, and put in force provisionally July 16, 1893, and modified in 1896. Som. Man., Vol. II, pp. 5, 17, 48. British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 82, p. 853; vol. 84, p. 630. For the earlier lease of the four ports to the Imperial British East Africa Co. and the transfer of their rights to Italy, see Hertslet, Map of Africa by Treaty, Vol. I, pp. 359, 362, 363; Vol. III, pp. 1056, 1091, 1094. 17 Mar. 24, 1891, Som. Man., Vol. I, p. 31; May 5, 1894, Ibid. Vol. I, p. 33.