in 1656 Cromwell, who favoured the idea, issued an order for the foundation of a college at Durham, to be endowed out of the church lands. This foundation so far progressed as to cause Oxford and Cambridge to petition the Protector Richard against a third university; but it was entirely crushed by the Restoration-an event which was nowhere hailed with greater enthusiasm than in the palatinate of Durham.

John Cosin (1660-1672), the first bishop after the Restoration was eminently conspicuous for the munificence of the public works by which he strove to repair the ravages committed during the Commonwealth. He rebuilt Bishops Auckland from the ground, and added its beautiful chapel. He repaired the bishop's house at Darlington, restored Durham Castle, rebuilt Bishop Langley's hospital and schools, and built and furnished the Library, which is called by his name, among various minor works. Throughout the whole of his diocese he urged the restoration of ruined churches and chapels, and restored the services of the church. He died in London, deeply regretted, Jan. 15, 1671, and was buried with great pomp in his own chapel at Auckland.

Nathaniel, Lord Crewe (1674-1721) was translated to Durham from the see of Oxford by the influence of the Duke of York. In 1677, when the Duke of Monmouth was sent against the Scottish Covenanters, he entertained him at Durham, and raised the militia. Lord Crewe is memorable in the north as the founder of the Bamborough charities, for which see Rte. 11.

William Talbot, 1721-1730.

Edward Chandler, 1730-1750.

Joseph Butler (1750-1752) had already held two livings in the diocese of Durham, Houghton-le-Skerne and Stanhope, and, during his occupation of the latter, had written his famous 'Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed.'

Richard Trevor, 1752-1771.

John Egerton, 1771-1787.

Thomas Thurlow, 1787-1791.

Hon. Shute Barrington (1791-1826) was removed to Durham by George III. from the bishopric of Salisbury. He was remarkable for his liberality in either diocese, and for the boldness with which he constantly defended the Church of England from the inroads both of dissent

and popery.

William Van Mildert (1826-1836) became remarkable as the munificent founder of Durham University, and the last bishop of Durham who held the regal honours of a prince-palatine.

Edward Maltby, 1836.-This prelate saw the abolition of the temporal power which had so long been united to ecclesiastical authority in the north, and which had been rendered necessary by the character of medieval times, and the position of the diocese upon the Scottish Border. The Catholic Emancipation Bill and the Reform Bill led to the establishment of the Ecclesiastical Commission, beneath which the glory of Durham departed.

EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES.-The county of Durham forms a triangle, containing 673 sq. m., with a population of 685,045, which has increased 30 per cent since the census of 1861. It is bounded on the N. by Northumberland, on the E. by the German Ocean, on the N.W. and W. by Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmoreland, and on the S.W. and S. by Yorkshire. Its boundary on the N. is formed by the Tyne, on the N. W. by the Derwent, and on the S.W. and S. by the Tees. The circumference of the county is 180 m. Its greatest length from E. to W. (from Seaton Snook to the junction of Crook Burn with the Tees) is 45 m., and its greatest breadth (from South Shields to Sockburn) 36 m. The county is divided into 4 wards, viz. Chester-le-Street and Easington in the N., and Darlington and Stockton in the S.

The county of Durham rose gradually out of Northumberland (a term originally meaning everything N. of the Humber), and besides the main body of the county, lying betwixt Tyne, Derwent, and Tees, the scattered patrimony of the Church originally included (1) the district called North Durham, which consisted of Norhamshire and Islandshire, including Holy Island, the Farne Isles, and a portion of the mainland between the Tweed and the Till; (2) Bedlingtonshire, lying in the heart of Northumberland, between the Blyth and the Wansbeckthese were annexed to the county in which they are situated by 7 and 8 Vict. cap. 61; (3) the district of Craike in Yorkshire, situated in the wapentake of Bulmer, which was formerly considered to be part of Stockton ward. This was united to the sce of York, by an order in council, dated Jan. 24, 1837, and at the same time Hexhamshire, which had formerly belonged to the archbishopric of York, was annexed to the see of Durham.

The Rivers of Durham are, 1, the Tyne, which forms the northern boundary of the county for 18 m. (from its junction with Stanley Beck at Wylam to the sea), during which it is joined by the Derwent and Team, with the Stanley and Hedworth burns, and becomes navigable for the last 11 m. of its course. 2, the Derwent, a rapid mountain river, which rises in Northumberland, and 3 m. below its source reaches the border of Durham, along which it flows for 16 m., receiving the Nuckton, Boltshope, Baronhope, Hyssop, and Hereselop burns. After its junction with the Milch burn it leaves the boundary, and flows for 9 m. N.E., till it joins the Tyne near Smallwell, 3 m. above Newcastle. Its whole course is about 29 m. 3, the Team, which rises under Pontop Pike, and flows for 13 m. N.E. and N.W. to the Tyne, which it joins 1 m. above Newcastle. 4, the Wear, which rises under Kilhope Law, and flows S.E. for 18 m. through the wild districts of Weardale, during which it receives from the S. the Ireshope, Harthope, Dadree, Swinhope, Westenhope, Snowhope, and Bollihope burns, and from the N. the Middlehope, Rookhope, Stanhope, Shittlehope, Wescrow, Howslip, and Eals burns. Near Witton the Wear is joined by the Bed burn, and at Auckland by the Gaunless, which rises on Egleston common, and has a course of 15 m., during which it is joined by Humber beck: from Bishops Auckland it flows for 37 m. N.E., through Durham

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and Chester-le-Street, to the German Ocean at Sunderland: between Auckland and Durham it receives the Croxdale beck and Shinkley river on the rt., and Stockley beck and the Browney on the 1.: below Durham it receives the Stanley burn on the rt., and the Lumley burn on the 1: its whole course is about 68 m., but only for the last 8 m. is it navigable for small vessels. 5, the Tees, which rises on Cross Fell, in Cumberland, and on its junction with Crook burn becomes the boundary of Durham, along which it flows in a S.E. and E. direction for the rest of its course: after passing through the tarn known as the Wheel, it rushes wildly at Cauldron Snout down a chasm in the basaltic rock, over which it leaps 5 m. lower down at the High Force. On the 1. it receives the Harwood, Langdon, Ettersgill, Bowlees, Hadslope, and Egleston burns: soon after its junction with the Yorkshire river Greta it receives the Staindrop beck. It enters the German Ocean by a wide estuary, which is navigable as far as Stockton, and for small vessels a few miles higher up. The character of the Tees is broad, shallow, and rapid, and it frequently ravages the neighbouring valleys by its inundations.

The principal Hills, or rather elevations, in the county are, Kilhope Law, 2196 ft.; Collier Law, 1678 ft.; Pontop Pike, 1018 ft.; Wardon Law, 632 ft.

GENERAL ASPECT AND AGRICULTURE.-The General Aspect of the eastern portion of the county is bare and monotonous, blackened by the smoke of its numerous collieries, which poisons vegetation, and overspreads the heavens like a pall. In every direction the country is traversed by the railways and tramways which run from one colliery to another, and the only beauty to be found is around the city of Durham itself, or in the deep wooded denes which débouche upon the sea-coast. These are valleys, or rather cletts, varying in length and importance. Castle Eden Dene, one of the longest, is about 4 m. in length, and presents scenes of great variety and beauty. The entrance to Hawthorne Dene, through a rocky gulf, is also well deserving of notice; Ryhope, Dalden, and Hazel Denes are less attractive.

The principal part of the western portion of the county is still bare uncultivated moorland, covered with heather, and only inhabited by miners, or the shepherds of its blackfaced sheep, except during the grouse-shooting season. The valleys of the Derwent and Tees, however, are richly wooded and abound in natural beauty. The upland meadows and pastures afford great advantages for the rearing of cattle; and the Durham breed, or improved Short-horn, is justly celebrated, and often fed to an immense size. The famous Durham Ox weighed 34 cwt. at 10 yrs. old.

The climate of Durham is bleak and cold, from its northern situation, but it is not unhealthy. The soils for the most part are of a loamy character, and are most productive near the coast on the E. side of the county, and in the valleys of Tees, Wear, and Tyne. On the N. side of the county, or friable soils of Teesdale, the usual rotation of crops, or "the four-course system," is that generally adopted; but the

larger portion is managed on "the two crop and fallow system," viz. 1 fallow, 2 oats; or 1 fallow, 2 wheat, 3 clover. The rent of the land thus used varies from 10s. to 11s. an acre, and the tithe and rates 3s. 6d. more.

"On the W. of the county all is limestone, the centre is occupied by coal-measures, the E. by lower red sandstone. The S.E. portion of the limestone is covered with sand. In the mountain limestone is the great primæval wealth of the county, the most productive veins of lead running from N.W. to S.E. The lead-ore generally contains a certain quantity both of silver and copper, but not in sufficient quantities to pay for the extraction. Zinc-ore is more plentiful. The limestone contains a great number of marine fossils. The coal-measures consist of beds of sandstone, shale, and coal, of various degrees of thickness. Those which are worked are from 5 to 6 ft. thick. The coal-beds are intersected by large fissures (troubles), which are great hindrances to the miner. Coal being itself of vegetable origin, vegetable remains are found in it in great abundance. Beneath almost every seam of coal is a bed of fire-clay, so called from being used in the manufacture of fire-bricks; this is full of the roots of the ancient forest trees." The magnesian limestone extends from North Shields to Hartlepool. Near Pallion the limestone is of such purity as to have been frequently quarried and polished for marble. Near Roker the peculiarities of globular limestone are seen in the cliffs, which appear to be composed of balls of various sizes cemented together. The basaltic range, known as the "Great Whin Sill," is the characteristic of Teesdale. It is again very remarkable at Cockfield, where it is known as "Cockfield Dyke," and it crosses the Tees near Stockton. A variety of the mountain limestone quarried at Frosterly, in Weardale, is known as Stanhope marble, and was much used in the decorations of Durham cathedral and other ancient buildings in the county.

ROADS AND RAILWAYS.-The Roads of Durham are quite superseded by its numerous railways, which have therefore been followed by preference in the routes of this Handbook. The principal roads are-1, the great N. road from London to Edinburgh, which enters the county at Croft Bridge, over the Tees, and passes through Darlington, Durham, Chester-le-Street, and Gateshead, whence it crosses the Tyne to Newcastle. 2, the road from London to Sunderland, which enters the county by Yarm Bridge, and passes through Stockton and Easington to Sunderland, whence one branch leads to South Shields and another to Gateshead. 3, from the city of Durham to Sunderland, through Houghton-le-Spring. 4, from Durham to Barnard Castle, through Bishops Auckland and Staindrop. 5, from Barnard Castle to Alston, through Middleton in Teesdale. 6, from Darlington to Stanhope, by West Auckland and Wolsingham, whence there are roads to Hexham and Gateshead.

Railways were introduced into this county at a very early stage of their existence. That from Darlington to Stockton is the first pas

senger line opened in Great Britain. "The coal-mines of this district have contributed more largely than any others to supply the motive power by which steam communication by land and water has been established on so gigantic a scale. The history of railways shows what grand results may have their origin in small beginnings. When coal was first conveyed in this neighbourhood from the pit to the shippingplace on the Tyne, the pack-horse, carrying a burden of 3 cwt., was the only mode of transport employed. As soon as roads suitable for wheeled carriages were formed, carts were introduced, and this first step in mechanical appliance to facilitate transport had the effect of increasing the load which the horse was enabled to convey from 3 cwt. to 17 cwt. The next improvement consisted in laying wooden bars or rails for the wheels of the carts to run upon, and this was followed by the substitution of the four-wheeled waggon for the two-wheeled cart. By this further application of mechanical principles the original horseload of 3 cwt. was augmented to 42 cwt. The next step in the progress of railways was the attachment of slips of iron to the wooden rails. Then came the iron tramway, consisting of cast-iron bars of an angular section; in this arrangement the upright flange of the bar acted as a guide to keep the wheel on the track. The next advance was an important one, and consisted in transferring the guiding flange from the rail to the wheel; this improvement enabled cast-iron edge rails to be used. Finally, in 1820, after the lapse of about 200 years from the first employment of wooden bars, wroughtiron rails, rolled in long lengths, and of suitable section, were made in this neighbourhood, and eventually superseded all other forms of railway. Thus, the railway system, like all large inventions, has risen to its present importance by a system of steps; and so gradual has been its progress that Europe finds itself committed to a gauge fortuitously determined by the distance between the wheels of the carts for which wooden rails were originally laid down. Last of all came the locomotive engine, that crowning achievement of mechanical science, which enables us to convey a load of 200 tons at a cost of fuel scarcely exceeding that of the corn and hay which the original pack-horse consumed in conveying its load of 3 cwt. an equal distance. It was chiefly in this locality that the railway system was thus reared from earliest infancy to full maturity; and among the many names associated with its growth that of George Stephenson stands pre-eminent."-Sir W. Armstrong at the British Association, 1863.

TOWNS.-Besides the city of Durham, the county includes seven ancient boroughs by charter or prescription, viz. Hartlepool, Barnard Castle, Auckland, Darlington, Sunderland, Stockton, and Gateshead. In addition to these, Staindrop, Wolsingham, Stanhope, and Sedgefield, are market towns.

COLLIERIES.-The most visible characteristic of Durham is its dirt, for the smoke of the collieries, which envelopes the county in every