Europe. This ceased when Jefferson became President. He dressed plainly and did away with all ceremony.

In the Houses. In the houses there were still broad open fireplaces where great logs of wood were burned, and whose heat nearly all made its way up the chimney. The Franklin stove, a sort of iron hearth, was in use in many houses, and was a considerable improvement. The closed wood stove did not come into use until later days. Tallow candles were employed to light the rooms, while homespun was still much worn.

Amusements.-Amusements were few and simple, and books and newspapers scarce. In truth, there was little time for reading or amusement, the hours occupied in labor being much longer than now and the work done more exhausting in character. In those days men did not attend machines, but did everything with their own hands. There were some labor-saving devices, and the steamengine had been invented, but the era of machine production had only fairly begun.1

1 The cotton-gin, used to clean the cotton fibre of its seeds, was invented by Eli Whitney, of Massachusetts, in 1793. It proved of immense advantage to the production of cotton in the South. No other invention has had so great an influence on the history of this country. Oliver Evans, of Delaware, invented the grain elevator and the steam dredge. Jacob Perkins, of Massachusetts, invented the first practical nail-machine. In 1790, John Fitch, of Connecticut, built and ran a steamboat on the Delaware River. It failed, however, to attract public attention, and it was not till 1807 that a satisfactory steamboat, the Clermont, was produced by Robert Fulton, a native of Pennsylvania.

PART VI.

THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC.

1. Washington's Administration.

What the Constitution Did.-The Constitution of 1787 made the United States of America. The country had been given that name in the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation; but, as we have seen, the States were far from being united; so weak was their bond of connection that it was in danger of breaking and leaving them as thirteen disunited States. The Constitution first made this country a nation, a federal republic of a strength and soundness of union surpassing that of any previous government of the people. The history of this country as a single and well-defined community begins, therefore, with the adoption of the Constitution by the States, and the yielding to the central government of such of their individual powers as were needed to make a strong and enduring nation.

First Presidential Election.-When the question arose as to who should be the first President of the United States under the new Constitution, both parties, Federalists and Anti-Federalists alike, fixed upon George Washington as the man to whom the liberties of the country were due and who was most worthy of the honor. Presidential elections were held in ten of the States, but there was no opposition

to Washington, who was chosen unanimously. John Adams was elected Vice-President.1

The Inauguration.-As soon as Washington received news of his election he set out from his quiet home at Mount Vernon, which he left with much regret, for New York, then the seat of Congress. His journey was like a triumphal procession. Along the whole way the people crowded to the roadside, waiting for hours to see him pass. "Guns were fired, triumphal arches were erected, and flowers were strewn in the roads over which his carriage was to pass."

GEORGE WASHINGTON.

The new nation began its life on March 4, 1789,2 on which day the Constitution went into operation, but the new Congress had not assembled at that date, and the inauguration of Washington did not take place till April 30. He took the oath of office on the balcony of a building in front of Federal Hall (in which Congress met), in the presence of a great and enthusiastic multitude. When he had finished, the ringing of bells and firing of cannon testified to the public

1 At that time the electors voted for two persons, the one receiving the highest number of votes being declared President, the next highest Vice-President. Washington received sixty-nine votes, Adams thirty

four.

2

Congress had appointed the first Wednesday in January, 1789, as the day to choose Presidential electors, the first Wednesday in February as the day on which these electors should meet to choose a President, and the first Wednesday in March as the day on which the President should take his seat. This happened to be the 4th of March in that year, and the 4th has been inauguration day ever since.

joy, and a ringing shout went up of, "Long live George Washington, President of the United States!"

Organization of the Government.-Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson Secretary of Foreign Affairs (now called Secretary of State), Alexander Hamilton Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Knox Secretary of War, and Edmund Randolph Attorney-General. These, with later Secretaries, became afterward the President's advisers, acquiring the title of the Cabinet. John Jay was appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and associate judges were chosen. Among the first acts of the new Congress was one selecting Philadelphia as the national capital for the ten years 1790-1800. At the latter date the capital was to be removed to a new city, to be built on the Potomac and named Washington in honor of the President.1

The Constitution Amended.-It quickly appeared that the Constitution had failed to cover the whole field of public questions, and the First Congress found it necessary to add a number of amendments. Twelve of these were proposed in 1791, most of them intended to guard the rights of the people and of the States. Ten of these were adopted. Two others were subsequently adopted, one in 1798 and one in 1804. No further amendments were required until after the Civil War.

New States. During Washington's administration the first admissions of new States to the Union were made, Ver

1 The site of the Federal capital was not selected without dispute. The Northern members of Congress wanted it as far north as the Delaware River. The Southern members wished to have it as far south as the Potomac. The debate was sharp and protracted. It was settled at length by a compromise. The South got the capital, and the North obtained an agreement that Congress should assume and pay all the State debts.

mont being admitted in 1791, Kentucky in 1792, and Tennessee in 1796. Vermont had been originally claimed by both New York and New Hampshire, whose claims were vigorously disputed by the "Green Mountain Boys." At times it looked as if they would go to war with New York. That State gave up its claim in 1789.1

Captain Gray's Discovery.-In the first year of Washington's administration, Captain Gray, in a Boston ship, the Columbia, started out with a cargo of Yankee notions, and made a circumnavigation of the globe, carrying the American flag for the first time around the world. He returned to Boston in 1790, and in the following year sailed again to the Pacific. Here he discovered in the Oregon region a great river, which he named the Columbia from his ship. He sailed up it for twenty miles, and left an indication of his visit by burying some pine-tree shillings at the foot of a tree.

Difficulties of the Government.-It was by no easy path that the new government was to make its way. Difficulties and discouragements confronted it. England was unfriendly; Spain was hostile, closing the Mississippi against American commerce. Algerine pirates were capturing American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean. The Indians of the Northwest were in arms against the pioneer settlers. A

1 The territory of Vermont was once known as the "New Hampshire Grants," grants of land there having been made by the governor of New Hampshire. Ethan Allen was one of the principal leaders in the warlike opposition to New York. Kentucky was at first a county of Virginia, but was finally given up by that State. Tennessee was similarly a part of North Carolina, then a separate State named Franklin, again a part of North Carolina, and finally was ceded to the general government. It was afterward united with Kentucky as a Territory, and after the admission of Kentucky remained a separate Territory till 1796.