the electrician. This is but a partial list, while the names of more recent scientists of high ability are too numerous to be here given. To-day the United States stands among the leading countries in the pursuit of science.

Museums and Scientific Institutions.-The earliest scientific body in this country was the American Philosophical Society, instituted at Philadelphia a century and a half ago. The earliest museum was the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, organized in 1812. Such societies and museums are now very numerous and many of them of high standing. In the making of telescope lenses American opticians are the first in the world.

Libraries.-Public libraries began in this country with the Philadelphia Library, founded by Franklin in the middle of the eighteenth century. Libraries are now found everywhere, several of them very large, while free libraries are rapidly multiplying. The largest is the Library of Congress, whose number of books is rapidly approaching a million. The Boston Public Library, with nearly six hundred thousand volumes, comes next. Others of large size exist in various cities. Of private libraries the oldest is that of Harvard University, which began in 1638. It now contains more than three hundred thousand volumes.

Art. The eighteenth century produced several painters of note in this country, of whom the best known were West, Copley, Stuart, Allston, and Trumbull. Later appeared Cole, Huntington, Church, Bierstadt, and others, including Morse, the inventor of the electric telegraph. Of famous sculptors may be named Greenough, Crawford, Powers, Rogers, and Story. In recent times, and particularly since the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, with its useful lessons in industrial art, this country has greatly advanced in artistic taste and feeling. Of art museums the Pennsyl

vania Academy of the Fine Arts, at Philadelphia, stands as the pioneer. Many other academies and schools have succeeded, while industrial art is being taught in numbers of institutions.

10. EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS.

What Education Includes.-The word "education" has a much wider meaning than is usually given to it. It comprises instruction in two series of events, those of the past and of the present. The former must be mainly derived from books, since it only exists as a record of man's doings. The latter is largely gained by observation, and is derived from association with mankind, and the study of methods of business, industry, etc. But when we speak of education, we usually mean that which is obtained in schools, through the aid of books and teachers. The other is known as life experience, and is the practical education which every living person gains in some measure, even those who are destitute of book-learning.

The Puritan Schools.-The necessity of general education was quickly felt in Massachusetts, and as early as 1635 steps were taken to establish a public school in Boston. The other towns of the colony soon followed this example, and in 1647 the General Court of Massachusetts passed an act requiring every town to establish a free school. If there were a hundred families a grammar school was demanded. Penalties were laid on every town that did not comply with this requirement.

In this action was laid the foundation of the commonschool system of this country. The other colonies of New England proved as active in this direction as Massachusetts. A public school was started at New Haven in three years and at Newport in two years after their settlement. Every

town in Connecticut was required to keep a school open for three months in the year, under penalty of fine. Laws were passed in every colony but Plymouth compelling every child to attend school. How these laws worked we do not know. There are such laws to-day, but they do not work very well.

Education in Virginia.-An attempt was made to establish schools in Virginia at an early date, but education in that colony was afterward much neglected. In 1671 Sir William Berkeley wrote, "I thank God there are no free schools nor printing; and I hope we shall not have, these hundred years. God keep us from both." Fortunately his wish did not bear fruit. A free school was endowed five years afterward. Yet education remained very backward in the Southern colonies. Even the children of the wealthy planters found no suitable schools, and were chiefly educated by tutors at home or were sent to school in England.

Schools in Other Colonies.-An act was passed in Maryland in 1694 for the establishment of free schools, but the first school under it did not appear till 1723. A free school was founded at Charleston in 1712. A school was opened by the Dutch in New Amsterdam in 1633, but the cause of education advanced very slowly, falling off under the English, and it was not until 1732 that a school of Latin, Greek, and mathematics was founded. The Quakers of Pennsylvania were more active in preparing for education. A school was opened in Philadelphia in the year of its settlement, and in the sixth year a free academy was founded. There were many successful private schools in the middle colonies, but little of the public money was spent for education.

Higher Education.-Schools preparatory to college were founded in several colonies, and three of these of very

early establishment still exist. These are the Boston Latin School, founded in 1635, the Collegiate School, at New York, in 1633, and the William Penn Charter School, at Philadelphia, in 1689.

Harvard College.-In 1636, six years after Boston was settled, the General Court voted a year's tax of the colony, four hundred pounds, for the establishment of a seminary or college at Newtown,-afterward called Cambridge. Two years later the Rev. John Harvard, of Charlestown, left to this school his library of three hundred and twenty volumes and seven hundred and fifty pounds in money. In recognition of this gift the institution was named Harvard College. It is now the flourishing Harvard University. So great was the interest felt in this college that in 1645 every family in the colony gave it either a peck of corn or a shilling in money.

Yale College. Similar action was taken in Connecticut. In 1700 two ministers brought together such books as they could spare, saying, "I give these books for founding a college in Connecticut." In this humble way Yale College began. It was founded in 1701, at Saybrook, but removed to New Haven, where it still remains, in 1716. It was named after Governor Yale, who had been generous in its aid.

William and Mary College.-There was a school founded at Elizabeth City, Virginia, four years before Harvard College, it being endowed with two hundred acres of land and eight cows. In 1693 there was founded at Williamsburg, the capital of Virginia, William and Mary College, the second in this country. This college, before the Revolution the richest in the country, has much declined in importance.

Other Colleges.-The other pre-Revolutionary colleges were founded at the following dates: Princeton, 1746;

King's (now Columbia), 1754; Pennsylvania, 1755; Brown, 1764; Dartmouth, 1769; and Rutgers, 1770.

Conditions of Early Education.-The free schools of colonial times, and until long afterward, gave but poor and sparse education. The schools were few and far apart, the teachers and text-books were indifferent, and the instruction was rudimentary. The only reading-books in early times were the Bible, the Psalter, and the New England Speller. After the Revolution the Columbian Orator became very popular and Webster's Spelling-Book was widely used. The grammars and arithmetics were crude productions. Writing-books were generally home-made, and ruled by the pupil with lead-pencils made by himself. The boys also whittled out their own slate-pencils, while the teacher made the pens out of goose-quills. The use of the penknife, and of the switch on the backs of the pupils, took much of his time. The teacher was paid partly by the town, partly by the scholars, receiving from one hundred and twenty-five to three hundred dollars a year in money and produce.

General Establishment of Common Schools.-The constitutions of Georgia in 1777, Massachusetts in 1780, Pennsylvania in 1790, and Connecticut in 1795, required free schools, but these requirements were often evaded. In New York common schools were established by Governor Clinton in 1795. An important step in the development of education was taken in the ordinance for the government of the Northwestern Territory in 1785. This required that section sixteen of every township should be set aside to maintain public schools.

School Funds.-When Connecticut donated her western territory to the United States, a portion was reserved on Lake Erie to provide a school fund. This, the "Western