The spiral curves, or volutes, which adorned some columns, have been supposed, as before remarked, to be in imitation of the curls of hair on a woman's head; or to extend the conjecture, of the curling leaves of plants, or of the horns of animals slain in sacrifice. The capitals of other columns are adorned with double rows of leaves; and this, as we have said, arose from the casual observation of such foliage growing round a bell-shaped vessel at Corinth. The shaft of a column, when carved into longitudinal furrows, is ascribed to a wish to imitate the folds of a woman's dress; or this fluting is supposed to have been invented as a support or resting-place for spears, as warriors were entering the temple. Lastly, the triglyphs, and other members of the entablature, may have been derived from natural circumstances, such as the flowing of rain across the entablature, which furnished the idea of channeling the ends of the beams; and the suspension of drops of water, which might have been imitated in the gutta, or drops. It is impossible, however, to account for all the mouldings which occur in the columns and entablature of a building, recognised by the terms torus, astragal, echinus, cavetto, cymatia, and the bird's beak moulding. All these mouldings are capable of being much embellished, and accordingly, we find them displaying the sculptor's skill in beautiful imitations of the leaves of various plants, or of the figures of animals, Since the discovery of the massive temples of Egypt, it has been supposed that the primitive types of those buildings must have been the rudely excavated dwellings of the early inhabitants in the rocks of that country; but on examining their present huts, built of mud and reeds in the form of frusta of Pyramids, which are probably of the same character as those of their ancestors, we are struck by so great a similarity in their construction to those of the temples, as makes us think it more than probable that the latter also took their origin from the simple hut. It is, however, by no means necessary to look further for a type, whence originated all the details of the splendid temples of ancient Greece. We are disposed to admit the wooden hut as the rude idea of a temple, because natural circumstances are powerful in directing and constraining the proceedings of mankind; but still, we ought to render due respect to the inventive genius of man. An infant community is, in great measure, constrained to make choice of the materials which nature has prepared in the locality of their settlement; and doubtless the forms of houses which they are thus compelled to adopt, must, to a certain extent, influence the style of architecture, should that community afterwards become so far civilized as to build extensively. But one of the direct effects of civilization is to foster intellect, and to afford scope for the display of genius, whose prominent characteristic is invention. Now whether we take the cave, the tent, or the wooden hut, as the origin of any one particular style, we ought rather to allow that the inventive genius of man through successive ages, has exalted the humble model into a master-piece of art, than that recourse should have been had either to the natural circumstances of the vicinity, or to the older structures of some distant country, for the suggestion of prominent features or ornamental details. In the spirit of these remarks a modern writer says, "It must not be understood that this hypothesis (the Vitruvian] alone is capable of guiding an artist in his constructions, or of restraining the excesses of a capricious faucy; since the nature of the building to be raised, ant our perceptions of beauty may be, together, sufficient to obtain these ends, In forming a portico, for example, we have to support a roof by means which may leave one or more of the sides open to the air. The roof must, therefore, be borne on columns, and between the breadth and height of these, certain proportions must subsist, which experience would soon determine for the best. The entablature might be, originally, one plain mass of stone; but it would be subsequently found more pleasing to divide its exterior surface horizontally, into two or more parts by projecting mouldings. and to ornament the facia in various ways, which would produce an agreeable play of light and shadow; and lastly, the capitals of the columns may have been, originally, simple blocks broader than the shafts, in order to increase the points of support under the entablature; and these would soon, by the taste of artists, be brought to the graceful forms they have since exhibited" Encyc. Metropol.; article, Architecture. It cannot be wondered at, that so imaginative a people as the Greeks should be in possession of many traditions respecting their architecture. We do not of course presume to decide whether they derived it from Egypt, and improved upon the cumbrous model which that country afforded; or whether, as has been asserted, "the hut of Pelasgus, the last entirely wooden cottage in Arcadia, remained the unvarying model of every subsequent fabric in stone and marble, however stupendous, which arose throughout Greece." Such, then, according to Vitruvius, is the origin of the orders of architecture among the Greeks. This origin may or may not be true: and we do not lay any particular stress upon it, because Vitruvius is not altogether a safe authority. Without, therefore, attempting to unravel the complicated and contradictory appearances which theory and conjecture have thrown upon the origin of the orders, we may proceed to lay before the reader a statement of their principal characteristics, while at the same time we will not altogether disregard the theories which have been advanced, to account for their introduction. It will be understood, that an order, in architecture, is that proportional disposition of building-materials which is peculiar to itself, and distinguished by two principal features; namely, the ENTABLATURE and the COLUMN. The former consists of the cornice, the frieze, and the architrave; the latter of the capital, the shaft, and the base. The architrave, or, as the Greeks call it, the epistyle, is that part which immediately rests on the columns, and is supposed to represent the main beam of the primitive wooden temples. The frieze is the central division, which rests on the architrave, and is usually ornamented. The Romans called it phrygium, which means phrygian, or embroidery-work; and the Greeks zoophorus, because they often adorned it with animals. The cornice, from the Latin coronis, is the upper part, which supports the roof: it projects considerably beyond the rest, for the purpose of protecting the lower pa ts. The eornice is subdivided into many parts, which are ornamented according to the style. The capital is the upper part, or crown, of the column. On this the architrave rests: it is ornamented in a manner peculiar to the order to which it belongs, The shaft is that part of the column included between the capital and the base. The shaft was often ornamented with vertical channels or flutes, the origin and use of which, as we said before, have been variously stated; some, however, refusing to consider the flutings as forming spearholders, call it an imitation of the striated or indented bark in the wooden pillars of the primitive temple; others, again, state that the idea was borrowed from the Egyptians, whose columns were suggested by bundles of reeds, papyrus stems, date-palms, &c. The base is the lower termination of the column, resting on the flooring, or on a pedestal. It is formed of projecting mouldings, and a plinth, in number and form according to the order. The word plinth is from the Greek, and implies a square tile. The proportions of all the parts of an architectural structure are regulated by the lower diameter of the shaft of the columns, which is divided into sixty parts, or lines. This is the module, or architectural scale. The façade, or front of a building, is its most finished part, and is usually ornamented with a projecting portico, surmounted by a pediment. The pediment is that part of a portico which rises above its entablature, to cover the end of the roof, the triangular form of which it assumes. A pediment is composed of two parts; viz., the tympanum and the cornice: the former is the interior area or panel, and is usually devoted to ornament or inscriptions: the latter is the highest part, and is placed last on the building, and crowns the whole. The distance from column to column, or the clear space between columns, is called an intercolumniation. Any one particular order may be easily recognised, by attending to a few simple points of difference, which we now proceed to numerate. In the Doric order there is no base or moulding at the bottom of the column: the plain capital consists merely of an echinus, or convex moulding, and the abacus, or square stone. There is also a triglyphed, or three-channeled frieze. The Ionic or Corinthian is recognised by the voluted or the foliaged capital, the chief distinction between these two orders being confined to the capital; since there is no precise difference between the columns or entablatures of either order, except the modillions, which are certain regularly recurring ornaments, peculiar to the Corinthian. Again, with respect to the shaft: the flutes in the Doric order are broad and shallow, forming sharp ridges on the circumference of the shaft; but, in the other two orders, the flutes are narrower and deeper, and are separated from each other by spaces left between the flutings on the surface of the shaft. With respect to the architrave, the Doric consists of a plain face, surmounted by the taenia, or band, to which is attached, beneath each triglyph, another fillet, holding the gutte, or drops; but, in the other two orders, the architraves are generally divided into three faces, projecting somewhat the one above the other, with curved niouldings, plain or orna mented. No one can rise from an attentive study of a Grecian Doric temple, without being struck with the masterly degree of skill with which its various parts are combined, so as to produce a grand and effective whole. In proceeding to lay before the reader a somewhat detailed account of a Doric temple, we need scarcely offer an apology for using a variety of architectural terms, which may at first sight appear new and difficult. The great advantage of technical terms, at all times, is, to convey concisely and emphatically to the mind, certain meanings or definitions which have been conventionally decided upon, and which, if attempted to he conveyed in what is called "popular language," would not only involve a description in much circumlocution, but would embarrass the careful reader, rather than assist him. At the same time, we must confess that a clear idea of the details and entire harmony of a fine building, cannot be obtained without a certain degree of fixed attention on the part of the reader. We therefore invite him to bestow this attention, with the assurance that, if he understand the means employed to confer so much simple beauty upon a mere collection of stones, he will find an additional interest imparted to his rambles, by his being able to appreciate the results of an architect's study, and to pronounce with some degree of confidence upon the good or bad taste of any structure which may come under his notice. Without at a.. attempting to fix a standard of taste, we may offer a few remarks, by way of answer, to the very general questions,-"How am I to know when such a building is in good or bad taste?" "Why should a building be in good or bad taste, according as it does or does not agree with the structures of the ancient Greeks?" The answer to these questions is very simple. It has been admitted by the almost universal voice of men of talent and genius of all nations, who have studied the subject, that the public edifices of the ancient Greeks are perfect in their kind; that their minutest, as well as their grandest parts, are combined with such consummate skill, that any altera tion must be a deterioration. This combination was doubtless the result of much study and variation: this perfection of architecture must have occupied many first-rate architectural minds, through a course of ages. In a country, too, where polytheism prevailed; where temples were erected to so many objects of devotion, and the character of each temple was regulated by the properties (so to speak) of its presiding deity; and where public buildings of other kinds than those devoted to public worship, so greatly abounded; all such variety must have given experience to a civilized people bent upon the adornment of their cities. Here also the meanest member of the community felt a zeal and pride in such adornment; thus doubtless making it become matter of competition with architects who should excel: and where the people themselves had the taste to decide upon excellence, we can no longer wonder that the remains of ancient art are now looked upon with reverence, trea sured up in our museums, and imitated in our own structures, as the works of our masters in architectural art;for such they surely were, else why do we copy their productions? and what else is it but a disregard of such perfect models at the present day, that has produced the general authorized opinion, that the modern taste for architecture in England is decidedly bad? "No art, says Mr. Eustace, "deserves more attention than architecture, because no art is so often called into action, tends so much to the embellishment, or contributes more to the reputation of a country. It ought, therefore, at all events, to occupy some portion of time in a liberal education. Had such a method of instruction as that which is here recommended, been adopted a century ago, the streets of London, Oxford, and Cambridge would not present so many shapeless buildings, raised at an enormous expense, as if designed for eternal monuments of the opulence and of the bad taste of the British nation. We should not see such a multitude of absurd edifices, under the names of temples, ruins, &c., disgrace the scenery of England, so much admired by foreigners. In short, instead of allowing architects to pursue novelty at the expense of taste, and seek for reputation by adaptations and pretended improvements of their own invention, a method which has never yet succeeded, their employers should oblige them to adhere strictly to the ancients, and by adopting their forms and proportions, to adorn England with the noblest edifices of Greece and of Italy." In our next Supplement on Architecture, we will conclude our details of the Grecian orders, and enter upon the fourth era of our history, including Roman Architecture. LONDON: Published by JOHN WILLIAM PARKER, WEST STRAND; and sold by all Booksellers. SKETCHES IN EGYPT, 1839. A NIGHT ON THE GREAT PYRAMID. * On the 28th of October I left Sakkarah, a small village on the western bank of the Nile, and followed the track which leads from thence to the Pyramids of Gizeh. In addition to a servant, the party consisted of two donkeys with their boys, and a camel, with its attendant, or seis. After six hours' donkey-riding, we reached the ledge of sandstone on which the great pyramids are built: the rock itself is excavated into tombs, and forms part of the ancient cemetery of Memphis. Mr. Hill, of Cairo, has enclosed a small promenade adjoining the tombs, and fitted up several of the latter as bed-rooms, The Arab who was in charge of the place was bachelor, not of long standing, for he had divorced his wife that morning. We availed ourselves of the tent erected there, and unloaded the camel to prepare for dinner. Some birds which I had just shot soon appeared upon the divan, or, to borrow an expression from the western world, upon the table, and during the interval I visited the pyramid of Cheops, and made arrangements for the proceedings of the night. The sun was nearly touching the horizon when I left the tent for the second ascent; and on reaching the base of the pyramid, its long pointed shadow might be seen moving across the inundation of the Nile, and rapidly gaining the opposite bank. Then it gradually ascended the mountains beyond, rising like a pyramid of darkness, till a universal shadow effaced its outline. Immediately after we began the ascent. I had flattered myself, that after some experience on the smaller pyramids, I should be able, empty handed, to distance the Arabs who carried our effects, I was, therefore, the more surprised to see the six who were engaged in the service, each loaded with a basket, mattrass, or such piece of furniture, scrambling up the giddy height with astonishing velocity, Scantily dressed as they were, they appeared like some red-legged insects crawling up a wall; and a wall does not look much steeper than these buildings, when one is actually upon them. On reaching the half-way stone, they waited for us to join them, and recommenced the ascent with equal alacrity, and in due time, we all reached the summit of this stupendous mass. The twilight being short in that country, no time was to be lost in erecting the piece of tent, without which the exposure to the night air would have been highly imprudent. The whole party then sat down to supper, and from the running translation of my Italian servant, the conversation appeared to have taken a political turn, not very flattering to his highness Mehemet Ali, The first incident that threatened our comfort, was the arrival of a swarm of flies, of such intensity, that a candle would certainly have been extinguished by them; but they disappeared with the twilight, as the Arabs had predicted." Then I discovered tarantulas*, eight inches in length, running over the stones; the Arabs assured me, that though they would bite in a house, they would not do so upon a pyramid. With this addition to my knowledge of natural history, I banished all apprehension from this source. After lighting a chibouque, and putting on a dressing gown as a protection from the dew, I lay down on the uneven stones of the summit, so as to see nothing but the sky above. The highest building The animal which receives this name in Egypt is somewhat like a fat lizard, but quite distinct from the cameleon. ever raised by the hands of man was beneath us, and the stars seemed sensibly nearer from the elevation. It was difficult to realize the precise situation which we occupied: apparently, Before the starry threshold of Jove's court, and certainly, Above the smoke and stir of that dim spot Whatever poetical associations arose during the daytime, they were nothing to those which presented themselves during the lingering twilight, on the same spot, On looking round, the country offered a prospect singular in the extreme. The stagnant inundations. on the east were jewelled with reflected stars: the melon fields, and other cultivated tracts, with their fires lighted by the watchers, were mostly to the north; and the Desert completed the panorama to the south and west. In these directions the darkness was unbroken; but gradually a dull purple haze hovered over the sand, almost beautifying the darkness, and at least rendering it visible against the last rays of the western sky. The Great Bear had set entirely, and the smaller seemed preparing to follow,-Orion had almost emerged from the flood eastward, when I left the rugged stone-work for the more seasonable luxuries of a mattrass and awning. The end of the former, rolled over a gun, served as a pillow, and Morpheus supplied the rest. There are some situations in which we feel more strongly than in others our entire dependence on divine protection. And since so much of our consciousness of the need of that protection is dependent upon external impressions, should we not do wrong in neglecting the aids which they furnish to devotion? About three o'clock in the morning the extraordinary appearance of the light coming through the tent induced me to rise and examine its cause; this was interesting enough; thin clouds had been formed by the radiation at night, and had settled upon the top of the pyramid. At times we were enveloped in a luminous fog; at others, the clouds swept up the side of the pile, and I could see the white moonlight shining on the base through the vapour. The appearance was precisely that described by Coleridge, While all the night, through fog-smoke white, and at times the stars were visible through the gaps in the clouds. The fog seemed to thicken till day break, but after sunrise it cleared away, Then the prospect assumed a remarkable distinctness, from the moisture of the air, but it was entirely disenchanted; partly, by the want of a variety of light and shadow, but more, I fear, by the uncomfortable sensation of a dull cloudy morning. The Nile was but a stream of muddy water, and the rich plantations mere boggy fields; the palm-trees hung their heads, as if ashamed of the weather; and the heavy dew stained the clear yellow of the desert sands. It was high time to descend, and we descended accordingly. Before leaving the summit, I was gratified by hearing a novel kind of echo from the neighbouring pyramid of Cephrenes. The troops across the river were exercising artillery, and the report of each gun was mingled with its echoes into a prolonged murmur : this sound, on reaching the pyramid, was reflected from the facing of each stone opposite; and being thus, as it were, decomposed, produced the effect of a rolling fire of musquetry. On discharging a foulingpiece, the same sound was produced. The entrance to the pyramid has been so often described, and offers so little worthy of notice, that it is not worth the repetition in this place. I was more interested in observing a gutter or gully on the east side, which I have not found noticed in any work. It seems formed by rolling down the stones taken from the summit, which were probably used in the building of Cairo. In addition to the pyramids of Cheops, and his brother Cephrenes, there is a third built by Mycerinus, the son of the latter, and a still smaller one, attributed to the daughter of Cheops. On discharging a gun alongside of this pyramid, a sharp echo was produced from it; then Cheops returned a hoarse growl, like the sound of thunder among mountains; and Cephrenes from the greater distance, "murmured soft applause." When a gun is discharged opposite a pyramid the echo appears to rise and fall: the swelling of the sound arises from the fact, that the stones in the centre of the base first returned an écho; and the gradual subsidence is accounted for by the tapering of the summit, which returns the latest sound. The sphynx is becoming so defaced that the features convey but little expression. I was disappointed in its appearance, though on standing beside it its prodigious size became evident. After breakfasting at the tent, we loaded the camel and returned across the inundation to Cairo. The accompanying print is from a sketch made on the top of the pyramid of Cheops, at the setting of the moon. The larger of the two other pyramids seen in this view is that of Cephrenes, and the smaller that of Mycerinus*. See also Saturday Magazine, Vol. I., 137, 196, Vol. II., 249; Vol. 111., 153, 185; Vol. VIII., 41, 81; Vol. XIV., 241. THE LAST HOURS OF SOCRATES. ་ SOCRATES, the son of a humble statuary of Attica, was born about 467 years before Christ. He gained the highest reputation among his countrymen for wisdom; Xenophion and Plato having considered themselves most fortunate in being his pupils. He devoted the early part of his life to the study of philosophy, and to the introduction of a purer system of morals than had prevailed amongst his countrymen. Having, however, through the fame and honour which he had acquired, excited the jealousy of many persons, to whom the respect and reverence paid to his character were displeasing, he was at length, when upwards of seventy years of age, accused by them of endeavouring to subvert the customs and institutions of his country, and thrown into prison. Through the partiality of his judges, and his own firm and unyielding conduct at his trial, he was condemned to death. He submitted to his sentence with patience, and refused, at the instigation of his friends, to escape from prison, or by a disavowal of his sentiments to avert his fate. This was delayed thirty days, in consequence of the annual rites paid by the Athenians to Apollo, in his temple at the island of Delos. On the return of the deputation from Delos, amidst the usual display of public rejoicings, the respite allowed to the injured philosopher ceased, and the poison was administered. He was visited in prison during this interval by his pupils and friends, to whom he imparted lessons of wisdom,-the best which that age of the world could supply. FOR Athens bound, from Delos' sacred shore, Amidst the general welcome, there are those The captive Sage, their friend and guide, must die. But while he waits th' inevitable doom, His passage from the prison to the tomb,→→ Illustrious hearers seek his dungeon-shades, Then, Socrates, thy varied wisdom's store, First he forgave each slanderer's private feud, Though worn in body, yet with mind unbent, And privileged by partial fate to dwell In amaranthine bowers, and fields of asphodel. Struck with the aching void, the stinted view, THE desire of power may exist in many, but its gratifica tion is limited to a few-he who fails may become a discontented misanthrope; and he who succeeds may be scourge to his species. The desire of superiority or of praise may be misdirected in the same manner, leading to insolent triumph on the one hand and envy on the other, Even the thirst for knowledge may be abused, and many are placed in circumstances in which it cannot be gratified. But the desire of moral improvement commends itself to every class of society, and its object is attainable by all. In proportion to its intensity and its steadiness, it tends to make the possessor both a happier and a better man, and to render him the instrument of diffusing happiness and usefulness to all who come within the reach of his influence. If he be in a superior station, these results will be felt more extensively; if he be in a humble sphere, they may be more limited, but their tendency is equally to elevate the charac ter of man.-ABERCROMBIE. THIS Book, this Holy Book, on every line, And earnest sighs, to read, believe, and live.-PoLLOK. TIME was is past: thou canst not it recall; · Time is thou hast : employ the portion small; Time future is not and may never be; Time present is the only time for thee. |