THERE are few persons who have not heard of Algiers,-its Dey, its corsairs, or pirates,-its bombardment by Lord Exmouth, and its occupation by the French as a colony. These have formed the subjects of many histories, memoirs, pamphlets, and newspaper reports of so much interest, that we think the general reader will be glad of a comprehensive view of these scattered materials.

We propose, therefore, to devote two Supplements to Algiers; and to convey such information as we may have to offer, in the following order:-1. A description of its geographical position; 2. Sketch of the principal events of its history, down to the bombardment by Lord Exmouth; 3. Account of the operations of the French, since 1827; 4. Description of the towns and principal buildings; 5. Account of the inhabitants, their customs, manners, dress, &c.; 6. Miscellaneous and general details.

1. Description of the Country. The northern part of Africa, from Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean, has been long known by the name of Barbary, from berber, the term applied to one portion of its inhabitants. It embraces about two thousand miles of coast; but is not included under one kingdom, as it is at present divided into Barca, Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers and Morocco.

This district was known in ancient times by the names of Marmorica, Cyrenaica, Carthage, Numidia, and Mauritania, proceeding from the east towards the west; of which it appears that the present country of Algiers occupies pretty nearly the situation of Ancient Numidia. The whole of these countries are similarly situated in two respects; i. e., they are all bounded on the north by the Mediterranean, and on the south by the Atlas mountains, or by the sandy deserts of Central Africa.

Algiers is bounded on the east by the river Zaine, which VOL. XVI.

divides it from Tunis; on the west by the mountains of Trara, which separate it from Morocco; on the south by the Atlas mountains, and on the north by the sea. It is about five hundred miles in length, and varies in breadth from forty to a hundred and fifty miles. It was, before its occupation by the French, divided into provinces, Algiers, Constantina, Titteri, and Mascara; the first of which was governed by the Dey, in person, while the others were placed under Beys, or lieutenants.

2. Sketch of its History. The northern shore of Africa, including what is now called Algiers, was the theatre of many important events in early history; but we must con fine ourselves to those which belong more particularly to Algiers.

Mauritania, in the time of Julius Caesar, included Algiers, and was, with it, reduced by the Romans to the condition of a Roman province. In the course of ages, one conqueror after another expelled the previous possessors, so that after being the property of the Romans, Algiers passed into the possession of the Vandals, the Emperor Justinian, and the Saracens or Arabs. This latter remarkable people retained the country for about four hundred years; it was divided into a great number of petty kingdoms, under chiefs of their own choosing; but all subject to the Caliph of Bagdad. At last, in 1051, an insurgent chief named Abubeker-ben-Omar, collected a powerful army of malcontents, and defeated, one by one, the whole of the sheikhs, or petty tyrants, and brought all the country under his own dominion.

This man thus became a sovereign, and was succeeded by his son Yusef, who so extended his dominions, that they shortly included almost the whole of northern Africa. This dynasty lasted for some time, but was ultimately overturned, and Algiers became the scene of repeated con486

flicts for the crown, between rival Arab competitors. These petty contests we shall pass over, and come down to the year 1505, when a new feature was given to Algerine history, by the introduction of European troops.

In the year just mentioned, the court of Spain, seeing a contest for the throne of Algiers between three competitors, did as lookers-on have often done; they stepped in, and seized the prize for themselves. They sent a powerful fleet and army, which conquered the principal towns in succession, and reduced the whole country under the Spanish yoke. This continued for about eleven years; but the Algerines, hearing that the king of Spain was dead, tried to regain their liberty; and asked the aid of Aruch Barbarossa. This remarkable man was the son of a Greek potter, and having contrived to get possession of a few ships, he became a daring pirate, calling himself "the friend of the sea, and the enemy of all who sailed upon it." He was the terror of the whole Mediterranean, and the Algerines, in an evil hour, sent to him for assistance. The assistance was rendered. He came with 6000 men, eighteen galleys, and thirty barks. On Barbarossa's approach to Algiers, he was welcomed by all the inhabitants, as their future deliverer. But he took a summary way of showing his friendship; for he caused the old king of Algiers to be murdered, and himself to be proclaimed king in his stead,-his soldiers shouting, "Long live King Aruch Barbarossa, the invincible king of Algiers, the chosen of God to deliver the people from the oppression of the Christians; and destruction to all who shall oppose or refuse to own him as their lawful sovereign." This frightened the Algerines into obedience, and they submitted to Barbarossa, who no sooner mounted the throne, than he treated his subjects with such cruelty, that they used to shut up their houses and hide themselves when he appeared in public. In consequence of this, a plot was soon formed against him; but having discovered it, he caused twenty of the principal conspirators to be beheaded, and their bodies to buried in a dunghill and laid a heavy fine on those who survived: this completely crushed the spirit of the Algerines.

But at length, the son of the murdered prince, in combination with the Spanish authorities, resolved to attempt to regain Algiers, which was to be given to Spain, as the lighter master of the two. The result was, that two successive expeditions were sent out from Spain,-Spaniards, Moors, and Arabs, joining against Barbarossa; and after a variety of contests, Barbarossa was killed, at some distance from the city of Algiers. But he left behind him a brother, Hayradin, who resembled him in boldness, vigour, and courage. He was immediately proclaimed king by his soldiers; and feeling that he was too weak to contend single-handed against his opponents, he adopted the plan of giving up Algiers to Turkey, on condition of being supported in the office of bashaw, or viceroy. This offer was accepted: troops were sent to his assistance, and he made vigorous preparations for defence. He built a strong mole for the protection of his ships; on which he employed 30,000 Christian slaves, whom he compelled to labour without intermission for three years. He besides obtained constant supplies of money from the Grand Signior, by which he was enabled to build a strong fort, and to erect batteries on all places that might favour the landing of an enemy:-in short, he soon became powerful to a degree alarming to the states of Europe.

The Grand Signior, probably thinking that Hayradin was making himself too powerful, raised him to a higher dignity nearer home, and sent Hassan Aga to fill his place at Algiers. This man soon engaged in such a series of piratical attacks on the opposite coast of Europe, that Spain, France, and Italy, all became alarmed, and entreated the Emperor Charles the Fifth to put a stop to the pirate's career. Upon this the emperor fitted out an immense armament, of 30,000 troops, 120 ships, and 20 galleys; and such was the enthusiasm that actuated all engaged, that the Pope promised plenary absolution of sins and a crown of martyrdom to those who either fell in battle or were made slaves, many young noblemen and gentlemen, as well as the knights of Malta, attended as volunteers,and ladies of birth and character, together with the wives and daughters of the officers and soldiers, followed, with a design to settle in Barbary after the conquest should be completed.

This pompous expedition was, however, doomed to an ignominious failure. On approaching the city, the garrison were dismayed at the force of their antagonists; but prepared for resistance. The Spaniards landed, and immediately built a fort, under the cannon of which they encamped,

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and diverted the course of a spring, which supplied the city with water. The garrison became thus distressed; and Hassan was about to surrender, when he received information that forces were approaching from one of his western provinces this resolved him to defend the city to the last. While the one party was attacking and the other defending the city of Algiers, a mad prophet, attended by a multitude of people, entered the Senate-house at Algiers, and foretold the speedy destruction of the Spaniards, before the end of the moon, and exhorting the inhabitants to hold out to that time. Whether this man was mad or crafty, certain it is, that on October 28, 1541, a dreadful storm of wind, hail, and rain arose from the north, accompanied with violent shocks of earthquake, and a dismal and universal darkness, both by sea and land; so that the sun, moon, and elements seemed to combine together for the destruction of the Spaniards. In that one night eighty-six ships and fifteen galleys were destroyed, with all their crews and military stores, by which the army on shore was deprived of all means of subsistence. Their camp also, which spread along the plain under the fort, was laid quite under water by the torrents which descended from the neighbouring hills. Many of the troops, in endeavouring to remove into some better situations, were cut in pieces by the enemy; while several galleys and other vessels, seeking to gain some neighbouring creeks along the coasts, were immediately plundered, and their crews massacred by the inhabitants. By the 16th of November Charles left Africa, with the wreck of his once formidable armament, having lost 8000 men, 300 colonels and other officers, and all his tents, artillery, and heavy baggage. Besides this, so many prisoners were taken, that the Algerines sold some of them, by way of contempt, for an onion per head.

Thus ended this much vaunted expedition, to the humiliation of the Christians, and the joy of the Turks, whose hold upon Algiers was rendered still firmer by these events. The chief authority, after this, passed from one bashaw to another; and although the Spaniards made other attempts at conquest, the Turks succeeded in keeping them at bay. Throughout that century a constant succession of Turkish bashaws oppressed the native Algerines; but about the year 1600 a change took place in the mode of government, by which Deys, instead of Bashaws, were the chiefs. The janisaries and militia of Algiers, dissatisfied with the cruelty and extortion of the bashaws, petitioned the Sultan to allow them to choose a Dey, or governor from among themselves, by which the interest of the governor would more nearly assimilate with that of the governed: they, on the other hand, engaging always to acknowledge the Sultan as their sovereign, to pay tribute to him, and to lodge and maintain his Bashaw in the province of an ambassador, but not as a governor of Algiers. This proposal was accepted, and henceforth Algiers was almost independent of Turkey.

The Algerines now became a powerful naval people; for the Moors, who were expelled from Spain in 1609, retreated to Algiers, and became able seamen; so that the Algerine fleet numbered forty sail, which attacked the ships of every European nation indiscriminately. Shortly afterwards their independence was increased, by throwing off all allegiance to the Sultan.

During the remainder of the seventeenth, and the whole of the eighteenth centuries, the Algerines from time to time attacked the ships of those powers that were weakest ; although they showed something like deference and fear in regard to those of England and France. The countries which suffered more particularly were such as Sicily and Sardinia. Not content with capturing their vessels in the open sea, the corsairs made descents upon their shores, sweeping off not only property, but all persons of every age, sex, and rank, who could be valuable in the market as slaves.

This course continued during the revolutionary war, all the great powers being too much engaged to attend to the piracies of the Algerines. But, after peace was restored, England turned her thoughts towards Algiers, with the benevolent wish of checking the atrocities of the corsairs. An expedition was sent cut under Lord Exmouth, with a demand for the general liberation of the slaves actually in bondage, and the entire discontinuance, for the future, of their detestable traffic. The Algerines were frightened into submission, liberated some slaves, and made fair promises, after which Lord Exmouth returned to England.

But old habits, especially profitable ones, are not soon conquered. The Algerines were furious at the thought of breaking up their corsair system; and as soon as Lord

Exmonth had left them, they renewed their excesses with more cruelty than ever, and actually murdered a large band of peaceful Neapolitan fishermen, for the sheer purpose of showing how cordially they detested Christians. When these tidings reached England, it was seen that nothing less than extreme measures would suffice; and a very powerful armament was therefore fitted out, and placed under Lord Exmouth's command. In July, 1816, he went with thirteen vessels to the Mediterranean, where he was joined by six Dutch frigates, under Admiral Capellan. Knowing the inhumanity of the Dey, Lord Exmouth was anxious to get off the English Consul and his family before the attack began. Captain Dashwood succeeded in favouring the escape of the consul's wife and daughter, disguised in the uniform of naval officers: an attempt was also made to carry off his infant child in a basket, but it betrayed itself by its cries; it was, however, afterwards released, although the consul was placed in close confinement. The battle began on the 26th, and was one of a very severe description, for Algiers was fortified in a masterly manner, defended by a considerable fleet in front, and by forty thousand soldiers within. The demand which Lord Exmouth made was, that Christian slavery should be entirely abolished, that all slaves then within the territory of Algiers should be liberated, that all ransoms obtained since the commencement of the year should be repaid,--and that the consul and all the British subjects should be released. This demand was refused, and Lord Exmouth directed a bombardment of the city, which continued seven hours, until the principal batteries had been silenced, ship after ship of the Algerine fleet had caught fire, and finally, the whole fleet and arsenal were in one body of flame, which illumined the whole harbour and bay. The result of this expedition was, that 1083 captives were set at liberty,-ransoms amounting to 383,500 dollars were repaid to Sicily and Sardinia,-the consul was liberated, and received a compensation for the insults he had endured, and a treaty was signed by which the Dey bound himself to discontinue the practice of Christian slavery, and hereafter to treat prisoners of war according to the established practice of civilized nations.

3. Occupation by the French.-We now approach a period when Algiers was destined to change masters. After the castigation which the Dey received from Lord Exmouth, he restored the town to its former strength, and gradually resumed his piratical course. In the next ten or twelve years he was frequently embroiled with the French; and at last, matters rose to such a pitch that a large armament was sent out from France to Algiers in 1830.

The expedition to Algiers undertaken by the French has been the theme of many stormy discussions, both in England and France: in the latter country in particular, numerous books and pamphlets have been written, some in approval, and some condemnatory, of the steps pursued by the government. On the one hand it is stated, that the strong tendency to piracy on the part of the Algerines made it incumbent on the French to adopt severe measures: on the other hand it is said, that in some mercantile transactions between the Dey and the French Consul, the former was deprived of a share that justly belonged to him, and openly insulted the consul thereon, which led to hostilities on the part of France: while a third party broadly states, that the disturbed state of France during 1829 and 1830 induced the ministers to appeal to the love of glory of the French, by planning an expedition, which should draw off their attention from political affairs at home. We are not able, even if we were willing, to decide which was the real cause of the expedition; but it is not improbable that all were combined.

But whatever we may think of the expedition, it is our office to detail the course of events, as fully as space will permit.

It was in April, 1827, that the Dey of Algiers, irritated at the result of some negociation between him and France, ventured to strike the French consul on the mouth, in the presence of other consuls. Reparation for this insult was demanded and refused; and the effect was, that orders were sent out to blockade the city of Algiers. The Dey, however, took vigorous measures to defeat the intention of the French, and the blockade continued three years, with scarcely any loss to the Algerines, but with a loss to the French of 20,000,000 francs, several vessels, a great number of seamen, and Admiral Collet, the Commander of the blockade. During this period the French made many attempts to induce the Dey to accede to certain terms of compromise which they proposed; but he, either

confident in his own strength, or thinking the demands of the French unjust, refused all compromise. After many stormy discussions in the French Cabinet, it was resolved to fit out a powerful armament for Algiers. Orders were sent to the various sea-ports, to prepare vessels sufficient to convey 35,000 men with all their arms and ammunition; and in a few months there were assembled at Toulon 11 ships of the line, 23 frigates, 26 brigs, 33 corvettes, 7 steam boats, 103 war boats, mounted by 27,000 marines, besides many other small vessels.

This formidable armament sailed from Toulon about the middle of May, 1830, under the command of General Bourmont, having on board an army of 37,000 men, 4,000. horses, and 180 pieces of cannon, together with many volunteers from foreign countries, and men of science, who wished to take advantage of the opportunity to obtain correct information respecting the natural resources, &c., of Algiers.

Ön the 29th of May, the flotilla came in sight of Algiers; but such a violent east wind arose, that it was judged prudent to take temporary shelter in a harbour of one of the islands in the Meditterranean; and it was not until the 13th of June that the fleet found itself again within sight of Algiers. After a careful inspection of the place, it was judged imprudent to attempt an open attack on the port, while it appeared difficult to attempt a landing, less on account of the numerous and formidable batteries erected on the coast, than on the difficulty of the anchorage But it was ultimately resolved that they should land on the peninsula of Sidi-Ferruch, about five leagues to the west of Algiers. The French expected to find this place covered with batteries, and had made their arrangements accordingly; but it was found almost unfortified. While the ships were anchoring, a few shots were fired from the shore; and a number of mounted Arabs, covered with their bernous, or white cloak, were gallopping along the strand, making observations on the ships, and reporting the result to their chiefs. On the 14th the army landed, protected on different sides by vessels ready to pour out a fire on any assailants from the land.

On the 19th Ibrahim attacked the French, and a battle was fought at Staoueli, in which the French certainly gained a most decisive victory; although we will not venture to place much reliance on the accounts of the comparative numbers of killed and wounded in the two armies: when we see it stated in a French work that the Algerine loss amounted to 5,000 men, and the French to only 130, we feel inclined to say that the account is much more marvellous than true, and that it partakes of that character of extravagance which distinguishes almost all victors, fresh from the field of conquest.

It was an important step in the advance of the French, that they found the enemy's camp abundantly supplied with every kind of ammunition. The Turks and Moors re-entered Algiers, the Arabs retreated to their mountains and deserts, and the French soldiers began to think that their labours were at an end; but the general judged it prudent to delay the siege of the city until all the artillery and cavalry had landed, which contrary winds had hitherto prevented from being effected.

The first two divisions encamped on the field of battle which they had conquered, and constructed a redoubt on a point which commanded the country between there and Algiers. Others were erected to keep a line of communication with Sidi-Ferruch, and the sappers opened on the ruins of an old Roman road, a military way leading almost to the ramparts of Algiers. From the 20th to the 24th of June, nothing farther than skirmishes took place between the belligerent parties; but on the morning of the last mentioned day, a more serious attack was made on the French advanced posts by a body of 20,000 Algerines; this was, however, successfully resisted by the French, though at the expense of the life of Amedée de Bourmont, one of the four sons of the general who were in the expedition. It was not until the 28th of June that the heavy artillery was able to be landed, and during the interval, the French advanced posts suffered considerably by the constant firing from two batteries and from some Algerine troops which occupied a commanding position.

On the 29th, the general having all in readiness to commence the siege, made arrangements for attacking the Algerines on the heights, driving them towards Algiers, and then investing the city. The attack was vigorously made, and the Algerines, taken in flank, attacked in front, and menaced from behind, abandoned their position, which was

soon after occupied by the French general and his staff. From this elevated spot they commanded a view of the Kasba, or citadel, and the whole city: it was there seen, that the principal portions of the city were commanded by a fortified position called the Castle of the Emperor, while the castle itself was commanded by the position which the French occupied.

To attack the castle, then, was the object of the French general; and from the 29th of June to the 4th of July his soldiers were busily engaged in digging trenches and erecting batteries; but they were much harassed during the progress of the works by the Turks, who made frequent sorties, and killed many of the French. By the 4th the French had erected three besieging batteries of twentysix large cannon, and were ready to proceed in their attack on the city. Meantime a portion of the fleet had been ordered into such a position as to be able to attack the batteries of the port and the maritime forts, in order to draw to that side some of the Algerine garrison. There was also an attack by armed boats on the lower part of the batteries and fortifications.

The Turks had hitherto neither seen nor heard anything of the heavy artillery of the French; and imagining that they had none, they felt tolerably calm. But on the 4th of July they were terribly undeceived. At a given signal all the French batteries were unmasked, and opened a terrible fire on the town. The Turks returned the fire with vigour and courage, and for five hours a constant cannonading took place on both sides. Walls were seen to fall, pieces of ordnance to be overturned, and the soldiers of the garrison to be killed with fearful rapidity. The besieged proved worthy of a better fate than awaited them, but they could fight no longer: all their cannons were useless, and the Dey at last gave orders that the castle should be given up to the French. Just as the latter were beginning to mount the walls, an awful explosion was heard, and the tower of the castle was seen to mount in the air: the magazine had exploded and scattered ruin all around it. A thick black column ascended 500 feet into the air, and shortly afterwards pieces of artillery, bombs, bullets, enormous masses of stone, and mangled human bodies, fell in all directions. The upper part of the tower had disappeared, part of the walls of the castle were thrown down, and the rest was pierced full of holes.

The French now entered the breaches into the castle over the fuming and smoking ruins, and found that the Turks had abandoned it and gone into the Kasba and interior parts of the city. The besiegers proceeded at once to erect batteries on the ruins of the castle, in order to be enabled to

attack the Kasba.

The Dey had imagined that the castle would be able to hold out against the French until the rainy season, when their destruction would have been certain; but when he saw his power upset, his empire destroyed, and himself likely to fall into the hands of the Christians, his confidence gave way to fear and despair. The city was in a tumult: all idea of farther resistance was given up, and the Dey demanded the cessation of hostilities. At 2 o'clock in the afternoon a messenger was sent from the Kasba, and was received by the French general on the ruins of the castle. The messenger offered in the name of the Dey to give up certain demands which he considered he had upon France, to submit to the reparation which had been demanded of him before the rupture, to increase the privileges of French commerce, and to pay all the expenses of the war, if the French would leave the country. General Bourmont refused these terms; he demanded that the Dey, the troops, and the city should surrender at discretion. The British Consul offered his mediation; but the French general pointedly declined it. The messenger retired; and shortly afterwards two others came and stated that the words "surrender at discretion" would be taken by the Turkish soldiers as implying a voluntary sacrifice of their persons, families, and property, and that under that idea they would rather perish than submit, and that Algiers and the riches contained in it should perish with them. This determination induced Bourmont to reconsider his demand; and he made the following offer :-that if Algiers and all its forts were forthwith given up to him, he would leave the Dey his life, his liberty, and the possession of all that personally belonged to him, permitting him to retire with his family and his moveable property, to any place he might think proper :ale same offer was made to all the Turkish soldiers;-and to all that remained the general guarranteed the free exercise of their religion, and that their families, their property,

their commerce and their industry, should be inviolably respected.

This offer was sent to the Dey, and he immediately submitted it to a Divan, where it met with a stormy reception. Some of the younger members, who had not sufficiently enriched themselves, proposed to murder the Dey, divide the national treasure among them, set fire to the town, and escape to the mountains, but those who had anything to lose saw the wildness of this proposal, and finally overruled it. The result was that the offer of Bourmont was accepted, and it was agreed that the city should be given up to the French at 10 o'clock on the following morning (5th July). At the appointed hour the French entered the town, their artillery at their head, and colours flying, and were soon afterwards gratified at seeing a host of Christians set free, their irons having been ordered by the Dey to be knocked off as soon as the castle was taken by the French. The Dey shortly before the appointed hour, began to remove his family, jewels and treasure, to a house which he possessed in the lower quarter of the town, and shortly afterwards the French entered the Kasba.

Thus fell Algiers, after having been for three centuries the nucleus of a system of brigandage and piracy which struck terror into Christian mariners. The first care of the general, after entering the palace, was to secure the enormous treasure concealed in five or six strongly secured apartments. This treasure consisted of money of all nations, and was the accumulation of three centuries of the share which fell to the Dey of all the prizes taken by the corsairs. A commission of officers was ordered to take an inventory of the treasure, and to see it conveyed to France. As to the amount of it, the most contradictory accounts have been given. One writer states it at at 400,000,000 francs, another at 270,000,000,-while the official accounts bring it down to a much smaller amount:-again, some state that the victorious general scrupulously sent home all the treasure, while others aver that the sum paid to the state was marvellously less than that which the victors actually received. On these points we cannot pretend to decide, but must here give the official statement. The amount in gold, silver, and precious stones found in the Kasba, is stated at 48,000,000 francs, in linen and other wares 3,000,000, in bronze cannon 4,000,000; making in all about 56,000,000; and that the whole expense of the expedition amounted to 49,000,000; so that the treasure-more than covered the whole expenditure. Besides this, the other species of public property fallen into the hands of the French in Algiers were estimated at 50,000,000 francs. As these were the official accounts, we prefer giving them to any derived from private sources.

Algiers taken, the presence of the ex-Dey and the Turks was felt to be embarrassing to the French. Besides, the life of the Dey was by no means secure; for the Turks, some of whom attributed their misfortunes to his obstinacy, and others to his weakness, were well disposed to put an end to him by way of revenge. The French general gave the Dey a guard of grenadiers to protect him, but suggested to him the propriety of his leaving the city. As he showed no inclination to seek an asylum in any of the Mahometan states, the English consul offered him one at Malta, and the French suggested Livorno; but he finally decided on Naples, where he had once before been. Accordingly, on the 10th of July, a frigate was placed at his disposal, on which he embarked with his family, relations, harem, and attendants, to the number of about a hundred persons, and all his personal property, amounting to five million francs. He landed at Naples on the 3rd of August, and proceeded to take up his residence there as a private individual. Thus ended the reign of Hussein Pacha, much to his personal comfort, if he knew how to appreciate it. It is not every one who knows when he is "well off;" but if Hussein were of that number, he must have felt that to live a free life at Naples, was far less miserable than to be shut up in the Kasba for ten years, (as he had been,) for fear of the scymitars and bowstrings of his own soldiers.

A few days after the departure of the Dey, those Turks who were not maimed took their departure from Algiers, to the number of about fifteen hundred. They were each supplied with a small sum of money, and were conveyed, at their own request, to the coast of Asia Minor. Those who remained behind were disarmed, but no other constraint was put upon them; and Algiers began to assume something like a quiet aspect.

Before the Dey took his departure, he had an interview with General Bourmont, and, after thanking him for his lenity, gave him some advice concerning his future dealings