Capuchin Friars, Franciscans, so named from wearing a capuchon, or cowl, hanging down upon their Capitulations: a name given to the judicial rights backs. The order was founded by Matthew Baschi granted by treaties to foreign consuls in Turkey. After about 1525, and established by the pope, Clement VII., many years' opposition, the sultan addressed a memorial 1529. The capuchin confessors of the queen Henrietta, to the sovereigns of Europe, in June, 1869; and modifi-introduced here 1630, were imprisoned by the parliament, cations were agreed to, April, 1870. The sultan decided 1642. on the abolition of the capitulations in Egypt about July, 1872.

Cappadocia, Asia Minor. Its early history is in- were used by the Romans. The lectica (a soft-cushioned volved in obscurity.

car), next invented, gave place to the carpentum, a twowheeled car, with an arched covering, hung with costly cloth. Still later were the carruca, in which the officers of state rode. Triumphal cars, introduced by Tarquin the Elder, were formed like a throne.

Caracas (South America), part of Venezuela, discovered by Columbus 1498. It was reduced by arms, and assigned as property to the Welsers, German merchants, by Charles V.; but for their tyranny they were dispossessed in 1550, and a crown governor appointed. The province declared its independence, 9 May, 1810. In 93 the city Leon de Caracas, on 26 March, 1812, nearly 12,000 persons perished by an earthquake; see Venezuela.

Carberry Hill (S. Scotland). Here lord Hume and the confederate barons dispersed the royal army under Bothwell, and took Mary queen of Scots prisoner, 515 15 June, 1567. Bothwell fled.

Carillons, see Bells.

Carinthia, a Bavarian duchy, annexed to the territories of the duke of Austria, 1336.

been a British and Roman fortress, was taken 530 by Carisbrooke Castle (Isle of Wight), said to have Cerdic, founder of the kingdom of the West Saxons. Its Osborne, earl of Hereford in William I.'s time. Here Charles I. was imprisoned Nov. 1647 to Nov. 1648; and here his daughter Elizabeth, aged fifteen, died, too probably of a broken heart, 8 Sept. 1650.

Norman character has been ascribed to William Fitz

Cardinals, princes in the church of Rome, the council of the pope, and the conclave, or "sacred college," at first were the principal priests or incumbents of the parishes in Rome, and said to have been called cardinales in 853. They began to assume the exclusive power of electing the popes about 1179. They first wore the red hat to remind them that they ought to shed their blood for religion, if required, and were declared princes of the church by Innocent IV., 1243 or 1245. Paul II. gave the scarlet habit, 1464; and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1623 or 1630. In 1586 Sixtus V. fixed their number at 70, but there are generally vacancies. In 1860 there were 69 cardinals; in 1864, 59; in Nov. 1867, 52; Carizmians (fierce shepherds living near the Casin 1873, 5 of the order of bishops, 34 priests, 6 deacons; pian), having been expelled by the Tartars, invaded The union of the sultans of Aleppo, Nine cardinals (one a Bonaparte) were made Syria in 1243. 13 March, 1868.* Eleven new cardinals appointed 12 Hems, and Damascus was insufficient to stem the torrent, March, 1877. In 1880 6 cardinal-bishops, 47 priests, 11 and the Christian military orders were nearly extermideacons; in all 64 (including archbishops Manning, nated in a single battle in 1244. In Oct. they took JeMcCloskey, an American, Ledochowski, Edward How-rusalem. They were totally defeated in two battles in ard, and John Henry Newman). Two more appointed 16 Dec. 1880.

45 in all.

Cardross Case, see Trials, 1861.

Cards, PLAYING. The origin of the game is uncertain. It is said to have been brought to Viterbo in 1379. Cards were illuminated for Charles VI. of France, 1392, then depressed in mind. W. A. Chatto's work on the "History of Playing-cards," published 1848. Piquet and all the early names are French. Cards first taxed in England 1710. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800. In 1825, the duty being then 2s. 6d. per pack, less than 150,000 packs were stamped; but in 1827 the stamp-duty was reduced to 18., and 310,854 packs paid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs in the year ending 5 Jan. 1840; and on near 300,000, year ending 5 Jan. 1850. By an act passed in 1802 the duty on cards was reduced to 3d. per pack, and the sellers were required to take out a license. Duty received in 1874, 13,131/.; in 1875, 13,8107.

Caria (Asia Minor), was conquered by Cyrus, 546 B.C.; by Dercyllidas, a Lacedæmonian, 397; his successor Hecatominus became king, 385 B.C.; for his son Mausolus the Mausoleum was erected (which see). Caria was annexed by the Romans, 129 B.C. It is now part of the Turkish empire.

Caribbee Islands, see West Indies.

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ID

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1247.

Carlaverock Castle (S. Scotland), taken by Edward I., July, 1300, the subject of a contemporary poem published, with illustrations, by sir Harris Nicolas in 1828.

Carlisle (Cumberland), a frontier town of England, wherein for many ages a strong garrison was kept. Just below this town the famous Picts' wall began, which crossed the whole island to Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and here also ended the great Roman highway. Of the great church, called St. Mary's, a large part was built by David, king of Scotland, who held Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Northumberland, from the crown of England. The castle, destroyed by the Danes, 875, restored in 1092 by William II., was the prison of Mary queen of Scots in 1568.-Taken by the parliamentary forces in 1645, and by the young Pretender, 15 Nov. 1745; retaken by the duke of Cumberland, 30 Dec. same year. The see was erected by Henry I. in 1132, and made suffragan to York. The cathedral had been founded a short time previously by Walter, deputy for William Rufus. It was almost ruined by Cromwell, 1648, and partially repaired after the Restoration. It was reopened in 1856 after renovation, costing 15,000. The see has been held by one lord chancellor and two lord treasurers; it is valued in the king's books at 530l. 4s. 11d. per annum. Present income 4500/.

BISHOPS OF CARLISLE. 1791. Edward Venables Vernon, transl. to York 1807. 1803. Samuel Goodenough, died 12 Aug. 1827. 1827. Hugh Percy, died Feb. 1856. 1856. Hon. H. Montagu Villiers, transl. to Durham, May, 1860. 1860. Hon. Samuel Waldegrave, died 1 Oct. 1869. 1869. Harvey Goodwin; consecrated Jan. 1870.

Caricatures. Bufalmaco, an Italian painter, about 1330, drew caricatures and put labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences. The modern caricatures of Gillray, Rowlandson, H. B. (John Doyle HB), Richard Doyle, John Leech, John Tenniel, Thomas Nast, and Du Maurier are justly celebrated. The well-known Carlisle Administration, see Halifax. Punch was first published in 1841. The most eminent writers of fiction of the day and others (Douglas Jerrold, imists of Europe subscribed to their cause 1873-6. Carlists, see Spain, 1830–40 and 1872-6. The legitThackeray, A'Becket, professor E. Forbes, etc.) contrib-committee in London supplied arms and money. uted to it. See Charivari and Punch. Mr. T. Wright published a "History of Caricature," 1865; and "The Life and Works of James Gillray," 1873. Mr. J. Grego published "T. Rowlandson's Works and Life," 1880. Mr. James Parton's "Caricature and other Comic Art in All Times and Many Lands" was published by Messrs. Harper & Brothers in 1877.

Carignan, a small town about twelve miles from Sedan, department of Ardennes, N.E. France. At the plain of Douzy, near this place, and the encampment of Vaux, a part of MacMahon's army, retreating before the Germans, turned round and made a stand, 31 Aug. 1870. After a long, severe engagement, in which the same positions were taken and retaken several times, the Germans turned the flank of their enemies, who were compelled to fall back upon Sedan, where they were finally overcome, 1 Sept.

*English Cardinals: Henry Stuart, created 1747; Charles Erskine, 1801; Thomas Weld, 1830; Charles Acton, 1839; Nicholas Wiseman, 30 Sept. 1850-65; Henry Edward Manning, 1875; Edward Howard, 12 March, 1877; John Henry Newman, 12 May, 1879.

A

Carlovingians, or Carolingians, the second dynasty of the French kings, 752-987. Charles Martel (715-741) and Pepin his son (741-752) were mayors of the palace. The latter became king 752; see France.

Carlow (S.E. Ireland). The castle, erected by John, 1180, surrendered after a desperate siege to Rory Oge O'Moore in 1577; again to the parliamentary forces in 1650. Here the royal troops routed the insurgents 24 May, 1798.

Carlowitz (Austria). Here was concluded a treaty of peace between Turkey and the allies-Germany, Russia, Poland, and Venice-26 Jan. 1699, in consequence of the great defeat of the Turks by prince Eugene at Zenta, 11 Sept. 1697, by which Hungary was finally secured to Austria.

Carlsbad (or Charles's Bath), in Bohemia, the celebrated springs, said to have been discovered by the emperor Charles IV. in 1370. On 1 Aug. 1819, a congress was held here, when the great powers decreed measures to repress the liberal press, etc.

Carlsruhe, capital of Baden, built by margrave Charles William, 1715. A revolution here was suppressed by Prussian aid, June, 1849, and the grand-duke returned 18 Aug.

Carlton Club, Pall Mall (Conservative), established by the duke of Wellington and others, 1831-2; present house opened 1855.

Caroline Islands (S. Pacific), were discovered by the Spaniards in the reign of Charles II., 1686.

Carp, a fresh-water or pond fish, was it is said, first brought to these countries about 1525.- Walton. It is mentioned by lady Juliana Berners in her book printed 1496.

Carpet-baggers, a name given to adventurers in Carmagnole, a Piedmontese song and dance, writ- the southern states of North America, who, after the ten about Aug. 1792; popular in France during the reign conclusion of the war, in 1865, endeavored, from interof terror, 1793-4. The chorus was "Dansons la Car-ested motives, to promote the political predominance of magnole vive le son du canon!"

Carmathians, a Mahometan sect. Carmath, a Shiite, about 890, assumed the title of "the guide, the director," etc., including that of the representative of Mahomet, St. John the Baptist, and the angel Gabriel. His followers subdued Bahrein in 900, and devastated the East. Dissensions arose among themselves, and their power soon passed away.

Carmelites, or WHITE FRIARS, of Mount Carmel, one of the four orders of mendicants with austere rules, founded by Berthold about 1156, and settled in France in 1252.-Hénault. Their rules were modified about 1540. They claimed succession from Elijah. They had numerous monasteries in England, and a precinct in London without the Temple, west of Blackfriars, is called Whitefriars to this day, after a community of their order founded there in 1245. A Carmelite church at Kensington was founded by archbishop Manning, July, 1865. The Carmelites, as well as other orders, were expelled from their houses in France in Oct. 1880.

Carnatic, a district of southern Hindostan, extending along the whole coast of Coromandel. Hyder Ali entered the Carnatic with 80,000 troops in 1780, and was defeated by the British under sir Eyre Coote, 1 July and 27 Aug. 1781; and decisively overthrown 2 June, 1782. The Carnatic was overrun by Tippoo in 1790. The British acquired entire authority over the Carnatic by treaty, 31 July, 1801; see India.

the negroes. Their influence counteracted by the conciliatory measures of president Hayes, 1877-8. [The term, originally applied to political adventurers, was afterwards used in the South with little discrimination, and applied to all settlers from the North who took part in politics as members of the Republican party. AM. ED.]

Carpets are of ancient use in the East. The manufacture of woollen carpets was introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of Henry IV., between 1589 and 1610. Some artisans who had quitted France in disgust established the English carpet manufacture, about 1750. A cork-carpet company was formed in 1862. The manufacture of carpets in the United States is very extensive, and rapidly growing as the production

of wool increases.

Carpi (N. Italy). Here prince Eugene and the Imperialists defeated the French 9 July, 1701. Carpocratiars, followers of Carpocrates, a Gnostic, in the second century.

Carrack, or KARRACK (Italian, Caracca), a large ship in the middle ages. The Santa Anna, the property of the knights of St. John, of about 1700 tons, sheathed with lead, was built at Nice about 1530. It was literally a floating fortress, and aided Charles V. in taking Tunis in 1535. It contained a crew of 300 men and 50 pieces of artillery.

Carriages. Erichthonius of Athens is said to have produced the first chariot about 1486 B.C. Rude carriages were known in France in the reign of Henry II.,

Carnation, so called from the original species being of a flesh color (carnis, of flesh). Several varieties were first planted in England by the Flemings about 1567.-A.D. 1547; in England, in 1555. Henry IV. of France had Stow.

one without straps or springs. They were made in EngCarneian Games, observed in many Grecian cities, land in the reign of Elizabeth, and then called whirliparticularly at Sparta (instituted about 675 B.C., in hon- cotes. The duke of Buckingham, in 1619, drove six or of Apollo, surnamed Carneus), lasted nine days. horses; and the earl of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove Carnifex Ferry (West Virginia), BATTLE OF, eight. Carriages were let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at fought Sept. 10, 1861. McClellan having been assigned the Hôtel Fiacre: hence the name, fiacre; see Car, to the army of the Potomac, the command in West Cabriolets, Coaches, and License duty-Annual license Virginia devolved upon General Rosecrans. Floyd com-duty for carriages: 4 wheels, 27. 23.; under 4 cwt., or less manded the Confederate forces on the Gauley River. The than 4 wheels, 158. Carlo Bianconi successfully introlatter was attacked by Rosecrans at Carnifex Ferry. It duced cars into Ireland about 1815; he died, nearly 90, was rather a manoeuvre than a battle, and during the 16 Sept. 1875. G. A. Thrupp's "History of Coaches" pubnight Floyd retreated. lished, 1877.

Carnival (Carni vale, Italian, i. e. Flesh farewell!), a festival time in Italy and other Catholic countries at Shrovetide or beginning of Lent.

Carrickfergus (Antrim, Ireland). Its castle is supposed to have been built by Hugh de Lacy in 1178. The town surrendered to the duke of Schomberg 28 Aug. 1689. The castle surrendered to the French admiral Thurot, Feb. 1760; see Thurot.

Carriers' Act, 11 Geo. IV. & 1 Will. IV. c. 68, 1830. Carrocium, a vehicle containing a crucifix and a banner, usually accompanied Italian armies in the middle ages. The Milanese lost theirs at Cortenuova, 27 Nov. 1237.

Carolinas (North America). Said to have been discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1498, or by De Leon in 1512. Raleigh formed a settlement at Roanoke in June, 1585, which was broken up in 1586. About 850 English settled here about 1660; and Carolina was granted to lord Clarendon and others in 1603. The cultivation of rice was introduced by governor Smith in 1695, and subsequently cotton. A constitution drawn up by John Locke was abandoned. The province was divided into North and South in 1729; sce America. The Carolinas being slave states, great excitement prevailed in them in Nov. 1860, on account of Abraham Lincoln's election to the presidency of the United States, he being strongly opposed to slavery. South Carolina began the secession from the United States, 20 Dec. 1860: North Caro- Cartes de Visite. The small photographic porlina followed, 21 May, 1861; see United States, 1861-5. traits thus termed are said to have been first taken at Both readmitted to the Union 25 June, 1868. Embez-Nice, by M. Ferrier, in 1857. The duke of Parma had zlements of South Carolina “official ring" (state govern- his portrait placed upon his visiting-cards, and his exment) disclosed; prosecutions, Sept., Oct. 1877. ample was soon followed in Paris and London.

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Carron Ironworks, on the banks of the Carron, in Stirlingshire, established in 1760. The works in 1852 employed about 1600 men. Here, since 1776, have been made the pieces of ordnance called carronades or smashers. Carrots and other edible roots were imported from Holland and Flanders, about 1510.

Cartesian Doctrines, promulgated by René Des- | Campos, about 22 Aug. 1873. Bombardment begun 26 cartes, the French philosopher, in 1637. His metaphys- Nov., taken by general Lopez Dominguez, 12 Jan. 1874; ical principle is, "I think, therefore I am;" his physical see Spain.—CarthagenA, in Colombia, South America, principle, "Nothing exists but substance." He accounts was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1585: pillaged by the for all physical phenomena on his theory of vortices, French buccaneers in 1697; bombarded by admiral Vermotions excited by God, the source of all motion. He non in March, 1741; and unsuccessfully besieged, April, was born in 1596, and died at Stockholm, the guest of 1741. queen Christina, in 1650.

Carthage (N. coast of Africa near Tunis), founded by Dido or Elissa, 878 B.C. (869, Blair; 826, Niebuhr). She fled from her brother Pygmalion, king of Tyre, who had killed her husband, and took refuge in Africa. Carthage disputed the empire of the world with Rome, which occasioned the Punic wars. The Carthaginians bore the character of a faithless people, hence the term Punic faith. Cato the censor (about 146 B.C.) always ended his speeches in the senate with Carthago delenda est /-"Carthage must be destroyed!" Many councils held here, A.D. 200–535.

503

480
407

Carthusians, a religious order (springing from the Benedictines) founded by Bruno of Cologne, who retired with six companions about 1084, to Chartreuse (which see), in the mountains of Dauphiné. Their austere rules were formed by Basil VII., their general. They appeared in England about 1180, and a monastery was founded by sir William Manny, 1371, on the site of the present Charter-house, London; see Charter-house. The Carthusian powder of father Simon, at Chartreuse, was first compounded about 1715.

Cartoons, large chalk drawings preparatory to oil painting. Those of RAPHAEL (twenty-five in number) were designed (for tapestries) in the chambers of the Vatican under Julius II. and Leo. X. about 1510 to 1516. The seven preserved were purchased in Flanders by 406 Rubens for Charles I. of England, for Hampton-court 396 palace in 1629. They were removed to South Kensing379 ton 28 April, 1865.-The tapestries executed at Arras from these designs are at Rome. They were twice carried away by invaders, in 1526 and 1798, and were restored in 1815.-The Cartoons for the British Houses of Parliament were exhibited in July, 1843.

339

They send 300,000 men into Sicily.
Take Agrigentum....

......

The siege of Syracuse..

The Carthaginians land in Italy..

Their defeat by Timoleon at the Crimesus..

the altar to Saturn..

310

The first Punic war begins (lasts 23 years).

264

The Carthaginians defeated by the Roman cousul Duilius in a naval engagement...

260

Xanthippus defeats Regulus...

255

Hasdrubal defeated by Metellus at Panormus.

251

Regulus put to death..

250

Romans defeated before Lilybæum.

RAPHAEL'S CARTOONS.

1. The Miraculous Draught of Fishes.

2. The Charge to Peter.

3. Peter and John Healing the Lame at the Gate of the Temple.

4. The Death of Ananias.

5. Elymas the Sorcerer Struck with Blindness.

6. The Sacrifice to Paul and Barnabas, at Lystra.

7. Paul Preaching at Athens.

Carving, sec Sculptures.

Casamicciola, Ischia. See Earthquakes, 4 March,

1881.

Cashel (Tipperary, Ireland). Cormack Cuillinan, king and bishop of Cashel, was the reputed founder or restorer of the cathedral, 901. In 1152 bishop Donat O'Danergan was invested with the pall; see Pallium. Cashel was valued in the king's books, 29 Hen. VIII., at 66/. 13s. 4d. Irish money. By the Church Temporalities 206 Act, 1833, it ceased to be archiepiscopal, and was joined 204, to Waterford and Lismore.

210

207

203 202

Carthage taken and burned, by order of the Senate, July, 146
Colony settled at Carthage by C. Gracchus..

Its rebuilding planned by Julius Cæsar..

And executed by his successors..

Cashmere, in the valley of the Himalayas; was 201 subdued by the Mahometans under Akbar, in 1586; by 149 the Affghans in 1752; by the Sikhs, 1819; and by the 122 treaty of Lahore, 9 March, 1846, ceded to the British, 46 who gave it to the Maharajah Gholab Singh, as tributary .19 et seq. sovereign. The true Cashmere shawls, first brought to England in 1666, are well imitated at Bradford and Huddersfield. Shawls of Thibetian wool, for the omrahs, cost 150 rupees each, about 1650.

A Christian bishopric..

Cyprian holds a council here.

Carthaginian antiquities (excavated by Mr. Nathan Davis)
brought to the British Museum..

His excavations about to be renewed.
Mr. Bosworth Smith's "Carthage," published..

Carthage (Missouri), BATTLE OF, fought July 6, 1861. Here Sigel attacked the Confederates under Price, Rains, and Jackson. The battle until two P.M. was an artillery duel, in which the Confederates were worsted. But Sigel was then obliged to retreat, which he did skilfully, saving his baggage.

Carthagena, or NEW CARTHAGE (S.E. Spain), built by Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian general, 242 B.C.; taken by Scipio, 210. The modern Carthagena was taken by a British force under sir John Leake, June, 1706; retaken by the duke of Berwick, Nov. It was the last place held by the Intransigentes and Internationalists of Spain; was besieged by general Martin

Gholab dies, succeeded by his son Runbeer, a favorer of
education, 1857; who assists in suppressing the Indian
mutiny and receives further guarantees.......March, 1860
The prince of Wales warmly received by the maharajah
at Jummoo..
20 Jan. 1876
Dreadful famine (partly due to continued destructive
snowstorms, Oct. 1877-May, 1878).. .......summer 1879
Cash-payments, see Bank of England.

Cassano (N. Italy). Site of an indecisive conflict between prince Eugene of Savoy and the French, 16 Aug. 1705.

Cassation, COURT OF, the highest court of appeal in France, was established 10 Nov. 1790, by the national assembly.

Cassel, formerly the capital of Hesse-Cassel, Central Germany, acquired importance through becoming the refuge of French Protestants after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 1685. It was the capital of Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, 1807-13, and Wilhelms

Catacombs. The early depositories of the dead. The first Christians at Rome met for worship in the catacombs; and here are said to have been the tombs of Cathari (from the Greek ra≈apóç, pure), a name the apostles Peter and Paul. Belzoni in 1815-18 ex-given to the Novatians (about 251), Montanists, and plored many Egyptian catacombs, built 3000 years ago. other early Christian sects; see Puritans.