honoured hero in command was struck by a cannon-ball, which carried away his left shoulder and part of the collar-bone, leaving the arm hanging by the flesh: he died in the arms of victory, universally lamented. In the evening of the day of battle, the remains of the army hastily embarked at Corunna, Jan. 16, 1809. The signal triumph which crowned this conflict is not more memorable than the arduous retreat which preceded it; retiring before a foe greatly superior in numbers, and from a country in which he had found no co-operation; both these achievements have placed sir John Moore upon the highest pinnacle of fame.

CORYBANTICA, FESTIVALs of. Held at Cnossus, in Crete, in commemoration of the Corybantes, priests of Cybele: they first inhabited Mount Ida, and from thence passed into Crete, where they are said to have secretly educated Jupiter.-Horace. In the celebration of these festivals they beat their cymbals in the dance, and acted as if delirious, 1546 B.C.-Thucydides.

CORYPHEUS. The name given to the principal of those who compose the chorus in the ancient tragedy; and now a general name for a chief or principal of any company.-South. This appellative occurs in describing the choruses taught by Tysias, afterwards named Sterichorus, on account of his having been the first who instructed the chorus to dance to the lyre, 556 B.C.

COSMETICS. Preparations for improving beauty were known to the ancients, and some authorities refer them even to mythology, and others to the Grecian stage. The Roman ladies painted; and those of Italy excelled in heightening their charms artificially, by juices and colours, and by perfumes. Rouge has always been in disrepute among the virtuous and well-ordered women of England, though some simple cosmetics are regarded as innocent, and are in general use.-Ashe. The females of France and Germany paint more highly than most other nations.— Richardson. A stamp was laid on cosmetics, perfumery, and such medicines as really or supposititiously beautify the skin, or perfume the person, and the venders were obliged to take out licences, 26th Geo. III. 1786.

COSMOGRAPHY. The science which teaches the structure, form, disposition, and relation of the parts of the world, or the manner of representing it on a plane.— Selden. It consists of two parts, astronomy and geography: the earliest accounts of the former occur 2234 B.c.-Blair. The first record of the latter is from Homer, who describes the shield of Achilles as representing the earth.-Iliad. See the articles on Astronomy and Geography respectively.

COSSACKS. The warlike people inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia, Tartary, and Turkey. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleys and the people of Natolia they were formed into a regular army by Stephen Batori, in 1576, to defend the frontiers of Russia from the incursions of the Tartars. In the late great war of Europe against France, a vast body of Cossacks formed a portion of the Russian armies, and fought almost invincibly.

COSTUME. See Dress. Accounts of magnificent attire refer to very remote antiquity. The costume of the Grecian and Roman ladies was comely and graceful. The women of Cos, whose country was famous for the silkworm, wore a manufacture of cotton and silk of so beautiful and delicate a texture, and their garments, which were always white, were so clear and thin, that their bodies could be seen through them.-Ovid. As relates to costume worn on the stage, Eschylus the Athenian was, it is said, the first who erected a regular stage for his actors, and ordered their dresses to be suited to their characters, about 436 B. C.Parian Marbles.

COTTAGES IN ENGLAND. The English cottage is, perhaps, the happiest dwelling on the earth, and its cleanly hearth and general aspect and economy indicate the social order of its inmates; even though homely it is full of comforts and the abode of contentment.-Richardson. The home of the husbandman has considerably improved in England in the last century.-Hall. The term cottage originally applied to a small house without land, 4 Edward I. 1275. "No man may build a cottage, except in towns, unless he lay four acres of land thereto," &c. 31 Elizabeth, 1589. This statute was repealed, 15 George III. 1774. By returns to the Tax office in 1786, the number of cottages was 284,459. The number in 1800 was 428,214; and the present number is said to be about 770,000.

COTTON. The method of spinning cotton formerly was by the hand; but about 1767, Mr. Hargreaves, of Lancashire, invented the spinning-jenny with eight spindles; he also erected the first carding-machine with cylinders. Sir Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for a new invention of machinery in 1769; and another patent for an engine in 1775. Crompton invented the mule, a further and wonderful improvement in the manufacture of cotton, in 1779, and various other improvements have been since made. The names of Peel and Arkwright are eminently conspicuous in connexion with this vast source of British industry; and it is calculated that more than one thousand millions sterling have been yielded by it to Great Britain. Cotton manufacturers' utensils were prohibited from being exported in 1774. There have passed of late years many important acts regulating cotton factories, and particularly relating to the employment of children; among these are the acts of 6 George IV. 1825; 2 William IV. 1831; 4 William IV. Aug. 1833, et seq. COTTONIAN LIBRARY. Formed by great labour and with great judgment by sir Robert Cotton, A.D. 1600 et seq. This vast treasury of knowledge, after having been with difficulty rescued from the fury of the republicans during the protectorate, was secured to the public by a statute, 13 William III. 1701. It was removed to Essexhouse in 1712; and in 1730 to Dean's-yard, Westminster, where, on Oct. 23, 1731, a part of the books sustained damage by fire. The library was removed to the British Museum in 1753.

COUNCILS. An English council is of very early origin. The wise Alfred, to whom we are indebted for many excellent institutions, so arranged the business of the nation, that all resolutions passed through three councils. The first was a select council, to which those only high in the king's confidence were admitted; here were debated all affairs that were to be laid before the second council, which consisted of bishops and nobles, and resembled the present privy council, and none belonged to it but those whom the king was pleased to appoint. The third was a general council or assembly of the nation, called in Saxon, Wittenagemot, to which quality and offices gave a right to sit, independent of the king. In these three councils we behold the origin of the cabinet and privy councils, and the antiquity of parliaments; but the term cabinet council is of a much more modern date, according to lord Clarendon.-See Cabinet Council, Common Council, Privy Council, &c. COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH. The following are among the most important and memorable Christian councils, or councils of the Church of Rome. Most other councils and synods (the list of which would make a volume) either respected national churches or the ecclesiastical government of particular cities.

COUNCILS, FRENCH REPUBLICAN. The council of ANCIENTS was an assembly of revolutionary France, consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris, Nov. 1, 1795, together with the council of FIVE HUNDRED; the executive was a Directory of FIVE. Buonaparte dispersed the council of Five Hundred at St. Cloud, Nov. 9, 1799, declaring himself, Roger Ducos, and Siéyès, consuls provisoires.—See France. COUNSEL. See Barristers. Counsel who were guilty of deceit or collusion were punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edward I. 1284. Counsel were allowed to persons charged with treason, by act 8 William III. 1696. Act to enable persons indicted of felony to make their defence by counsel, 6 and 7 William IV. Aug. 1836. COUNTIES. The division of this kingdom into counties began, it is said, with king Alfred; but some counties bore their present names a century before. The division of Ireland into counties took place in 1562. County courts were instituted in the reign of Alfred, 896. Counties first sent members to parliament, before which period knights met in their own counties, 1258.-See Commons, and Parliament. COURIERS OR POSTS. Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus; and Herodotus says that they were common among the Persians. But it does not appear that the Greeks or Romans had regular couriers till the time of Augustus, when they travelled in cars, about 24 B.C. Couriers or posts are said to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne, about A.D. 800. The couriers or posts for letters were established in the early part of the reign of Louis XI. of France, owing to this monarch's extraordinary eagerness for news. They were the first institution of the kind in Europe, A.D. 1463.-Henault.

COURT PARTY-COUNTRY PARTY. The latter, most usually directly opposed in sentiment to the former, was a class of politicians of very fluctuating numbers, and varying power, in the kingdom and parliaments of England. The title took its origin as early as 1620, during the disputes of king and commons. At the end of the same century, their party principles embodied the high toryism and high church principles of the day, including a general if not universal bias to Jacobitism, with a strenuous maintenance of the assumed rights of "the land," as opposed to the innovations of Whiggism and the corruptions of the trading or moneyed interests-our first Hanoverian kings, George I. and II., being ever supposed to favour the latter too much. The most distinguished statesman latterly of the Country Party was sir Thomas Hanmer (the Montalto of Pope's Satires), born 1677, died 1746. COURTESANS. In all ages and countries courtesans have existed where refinement and luxury abounded; and many women of Egypt, Greece, Persia, and Rome, and the States of Italy, and in later times of France, have been celebrated for their extraordinary beauty and debaucheries. Among very celebrated women of this class, may be mentioned Lais. She first began to sell her favours at Corinth, for 10,000 drachmas; and the immense number of princes, nobles, and philosophers who courted her embraces, stands a record of her personal charms. Even Demosthenes himself visited Corinth for the sake of Lais. Diogenes, the cynic, was one of her admirers, and gained her heart, and enjoyed her most unbounded favours: she was assassinated in Thessaly, in the temple of Venus, about 340 B.C.-Plutarch. Phryne, of Athens, was the loveliest woman of her time, and Apelles made her the model of his Venus Anadyomene. She became so rich by the liberality of her lovers, that she offered to rebuild, at her own expense, Thebes, which Alexander had destroyed.-Plu. Dem. Phryne was accused of impiety, and when she saw that she

was about to be condemned, she unveiled her bosom, and her judges were so influenced by the sight of her beauty that they instantly acquitted her, about 328 B.C.-Quin. COURTS. Courts of justice were instituted at Athens, 1507 B.C.-See Areopagita. There were courts for the distribution of justice in Athens, in 1272 B.C.-Blair. They existed under various denominations in Rome, and other countries. For courts of justice in these realms, see Chancery, Common Pleas, Exchequer, King's Bench, &c. The citizens of London were privileged to plead their own cause in the courts of judicature, without employing lawyers, except in pleas of the crown, 41 Henry III. 1257.-Stowe's Chron. The courts of law of England and Ireland were separated by a British act of parliament, in April 1783.

COURT BARON. An ancient court which every lord of a manor may hold by prescription, and which he may keep in some part of the manor. In this court, duties, heriots, and customs are received, and estates and surrenders are passed. COURT OF HONOUR. In England, the court of chivalry, of which the lord high constable was a judge, was called Curia Militaris in the time of Henry IV., and subsequently the Court of Honour. In the States of Bavaria, in order to prevent duelling, a court of honour was instituted in April, 1819. In these countries, Mr. Joseph Hamilton has been ardently labouring, during a number of years, for the establishment of similar institutions.

COURT LEET. A court of record belonging to a hundred, instituted for punishing encroachments, nuisances, and fraudulent weights and measures, and also offences against the crown. The steward is the judge, and all persons residing within the hundred (peers, clergymen, &c., excepted), are obliged to do suit within this court. COURT OF REQUESTS. This court, which is also called a Court of Conscience, was first instituted in the reign of Henry VII., 1493, and was remodelled by a statute of Henry VIII. in 1517.-Stowe. This court is for the summary recovery of small debts under forty shillings, but in the city of London, the jurisdiction extends to debts of five pounds. There are courts of requests in the principal corporate towns throughout the kingdom, and their functions have been regulated by various succeeding statutes. COVENANT. That of GOD with Abraham, in memorial whereof the rite of circumcision was instituted, and Abraham circumcised himself, was made 1897 B.C.Josephus. COVENANTERS. The name which was particularly applied to those persons who in the reign of Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby mutually engag ing to stand by each other in opposition to the projects of the king; it was entered into in 1638. The covenant or league between England and Scotland, was formed in 1643; it was declared to be illegal by parliament, 14 Charles II., 1662. COVENT GARDEN. So called from having been formerly the garden of St. Peter's convent; the square was built about 1633, and its noble piazza on the north side was designed by Inigo Jones. The fruit and vegetable market was rebuilt in 1829-30 from the designs of Mr. Fowler; it occupies about three acres of ground. COVENT GARDEN THEATRE. This theatre sprung out of the celebrated one in Lincoln's-inn-fields, and is indebted for its origin to a patent granted 14 Charles II., 1662, to sir William Davenant, whose company was denominated the duke's servants, as a compliment to the duke of York, afterwards James II. The theatre which preceded the present, was first opened by the celebrated Rich, about 1732, but after undergoing several alterations, was destroyed by fire, Sept. 20, 1808. The new theatre was erected during the ensuing year, the first stone having been laid by the duke of Sussex, Dec. 31, 1808, and it opened Sept. 18, 1809, with Macbeth. The memorable O.P. riot, on account of the increased of prices of admission, commenced on the first night, and did not terminate until Dec. 10, following. The Covent Garden Theatrical Fund was instituted in 1765.—See Drama, Theatres, &c. COVENTRY. Leofric earl of Mercia, was the lord of Coventry, about A.D. 1040. A parliament was held here in the reign of Henry IV., called parliamentum indoctum, or the unlearned parliament, because the lawyers were excluded. The town was well built, and was surrounded with strong walls, which were three miles in circumference, and twenty-six towers, which were demolished by order of king Charles II. in 1662. COVENTRY BISHOPRIC OF. Founded by Oswy, king of Mercia, A.D. 656. This see has the double name of Coventry and Lichfield, which is reversed by the present

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bishops. It was so extremely wealthy, that king Offa, by the favour of pope Adrian, made it archiepiscopal; but this title was laid aside on the death of that king. In 1075 the see was removed to Chester; in 1102, to Coventry; and afterwards to its original foundation, Lichfield, but with great opposition from the monks of Coventry. The dispute was finally settled in a manner nearly similar to that mentioned between Bath and Wells. This see has given three saints to the church. It was valued in the king's book at £559 18s. 2d. per annum.

COVENTRY, PEEPING TOM or. The great show fair of Coventry owes its origin to the following tradition :-Leofric, earl of Mercia, had imposed such heavy taxes on the citizens, his lady, Godiva, moved by their entreaties, importuned her lord to remit them, and he consented on the condition of her riding naked through the city at mid-day. Her humanity induced her to consent, and she so disposed her flowing tresses as to hide her person; and ordering all the inhabitants, on pain of death, to close their doors and windows, she rode quite naked through the town. One person, yielding to curiosity, stole a glance at the countess, and was struck dead; and has been famed ever since under the name of Peeping Tom, and his effigy is shown to this day. To commemorate this event, A.D. 1057, at the great show fair the mayor and corporation walk in procession through the town, accompanied by a female on horseback, clad in a linen dress closely fitted to her limbs. COW-POCK INOCULATION. This species of inoculation, as a security against the small-pox, was introduced by Dr. Jenner, and it became general in 1799. The genuine cow-pox appears in the form of vesicles on the teats of the cow, and was first noticed by Dr. Jenner, in 1796. He was rewarded by parliament with the munificent grant of £10,000, June 2, 1802.-See Inoculation, Small-Por, Vaccination.

CRACOW. The Poles elect Cracus for their duke, and he builds Cracow with the spoils taken from the Franks, A.D. 700, et seq. Taken by Charles XII. in 1702; taken and retaken by the Russians and confederates on the one side, and the patriotic people on the other several times. Kosciusko expelled the Russian garrison from the city, March 24, 1794. It surrendered to the Prussians, June 15, same year. Formed into a republic in 1815. Occupied by 10,000 Russians who followed there the defeated Poles, Sept. 1831.—See Poland.

CRANES. They are of very early date, for the engines of Archimedes may be so called. The theory of the inclined plane, the pulley, &c. are also his, 220 B.C.-Livy. CRANIOLOGY. The science of animal propensities. Dr. Gall, a German, started this new doctrine respecting the brain, in 1803. Dr. Spurzheim followed, and by his expositions gave a consistency to the science, and it seems to be rapidly gaining ground; it has now many professors, and in almost all countries craniology is countenanced by learned and enlightened men. The science assigns the particular locations of certain organs, or as many different seats of the most prominent operations of the mind.

CRANMER, LATIMER, AND RIDLEY. Illustrious names in the list of English martyrs of the reformed religion. Ridley, bishop of London, and Latimer, bishop of Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, Oct. 16, 1555; and Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, March 21, 1556. His love of life had induced Cranmer, some time previously, in an unguarded moment, to sign a paper wherein he condemned the Reformation; and when he was led to the stake, and the fire was kindled round him, he stretched forth his right hand, with which he had signed his recantation, that it might be consumed before the rest of his body, exclaiming from time to time, "This unworthy hand!" Raising his eyes to heaven, he expired with the dying prayer of the first martyr of the Christian church, "Lord Jesus, receive my spirit !" CRANON, Battles of. The Macedonians under Antipater and Craterus are victorious over the confederated Greeks, whom they defeat twice by sea, and once by land, near Cranon. The Athenians demand peace, and Antipater, the conqueror, puts their orators to death. Among them was Hyperides, who, that he might not betray the secrets of his country, when under torture, cut out his tongue, 322 B.C.-Dufresnoy. CRAPE. A light kind of stuff like gauze, made of raw silk gummed and twisted on the mill. Its manufacture is of very early date, and it is said some crape was made by St. Badour, when queen of France, about A.D. 680. It was first made at Bologna, and in modern times has been principally used for mourning.