1832. Otho I., prince of Bavaria; born 1 June, 1815; elected Greek Architecture, see Architecture. Epictetus.. First council of Nice (see Councils).. Foundation of the churches of Armenia, about 300; of Rivalry between Rome and Constantinople begins about 340 Nestorius condemned at the council of Ephesus.. Appian.. 318 Arrian., 325 Athenæus.. Lucian ..about 376 Herodian 431 Longinus... Julian, emperor. 461 Close of the school of Athens; extinction of the Platonic theology 529 .about B.C. 962-927 ...about 850 (See Fathers and Philosophy.) Green Cloth, BOARD OF, in the department of the lord-steward of the household, included an ancient court (abolished in 1849), with jurisdiction of all offences committed in the verge of the court. Green Park (near Buckingham Palace, London) 690 forms a part of the ground enclosed by Henry VIII. in 1530, and is united to St. James's and Hyde parks by the road named Constitution hill. Over the arch at the entrance, the Wellington statue was placed in 1846. On the north side was a reservoir of the Chelsea waterworks, filled up in 1856. 729 988 1182 1277 1762 1863 Greenbacks, a name given, from the predominating color of the ink, to notes for a dollar and upwards, first issued by the United States government in 1862. Notes for lower sums (even 3 cents) were termed "fractional currency." For Greenbackers, see United States, 1878. Green-bag Inquiry took its name from a Green Bag, full of documents of alleged seditions, laid before parliament by lord Sidmouth, 3 Feb. 1817. Secret committees presented their reports, 19 Feb.; and bills were brought in on the 21st to suspend the habeas corpus act, and prohibit seditious meetings, then frequent. Greenland, an extensive Danish colony in North America, discovered by Icelanders, under Eric Raude, about 980, and named from its verdure. It was visited The archimandrite Nilos, representing Constantinople and 4 patriarchates, visits London on behalf of the Greek clergy in the Danubian principalities... The pope's invitation to an ecumenical council, 8 Dec. 1869, firmly declined by the patriarch of Constantinople.. .........about 3 Oct. 1868 Letter from the patriarch Gregory to the archbishop of Canterbury acknowledging receipt of English prayerbook, and objecting to some of "Thirty-nine Articles," dated 8 Oct. 1869 Greek church at Liverpool consecrated by an archbishop, 16 Jan. 1870 Greek Empire, see Eastern Empire. Greek Fire, a combustible composition (now un- by Frobisher in 1576. The first ship from England to known, but thought to have been principally naphtha). Greenland was sent for the whale-fishery by the Musthrown from engines, said to have been invented by Cal- covy Company, 2 James I. 1604. In a voyage performed linicus, an engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, in the seventh in 1630, eight men were left behind by accident, who century, to destroy the Saracens' ships, which was effected suffered incredible hardships till the following year, when by the general of the fleet of Constantine Pogonatus, the company's ships brought them home.-Tindal. The and 30,000 men were killed. A so-called "Greek fire," Greenland Fishing Company was incorporated in 1693. probably a solution of phosphorus in bisulphide of car--Hans Egede, a Danish missionary, founded a new colbon, was employed at the siege of Charleston, U.S., in Sept. 1863. Greek Language. The study was revived in western Europe about 1450; in France, 1473. William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, an English professor of this language, introduced it at Oxford, about 1491, where he taught Erasmus, who himself taught it at Cambridge in 1510. Wood's Athen. Oxon. England has produced many eminent Greek scholars, of whom may be men ony, called Godhaab, or Good Hope, in 1720-3; and other missionary stations have been since established. Scoresby surveyed Greenland in 1821; and capt. Graah, by order of the king of Denmark, in 1829-30. Population in 1878, about 9408. Greenock (W. Scotland). Charters were granted in 1635 and 1760 to John Shaw, of the barony of Greenock. It was a fishing station till 1697, when the Scottish Indian and African Company resolved to erect salt works in the Frith, and thus drew the attention of sir John Shaw, its superior, to its maritime advantages. It was made a burgh of barony in 1757, and a parliamentary burgh in 1832. The erection of the new quay was intrusted, about 1773, to James Watt, who was born here in 1736. The East India harbor was built 1805-19, and Victoria harbor 1846-50. Greenwich (Kent), anciently Grenawic, an ancient manor, near which the Danes murdered the archbishop Elphege, 1012. The Hospital stands on the site of a royal residence erected in the reign of Edward I., and much enlarged by his successors. Here were born Henry VIII., his daughters Mary and Elizabeth, and here his son Edward VI. died. Charles II. intended to build a new palace here, but erected one wing only. Grenadiers. The Grenadier corps was a company armed with a pouch of hand-grenades, established in France in 1667; and in England in 1685.-Brown. See Guards. Grenelle, see Artesian Wells. Grenoble (the Roman Gratianopolis), S. E. France. Here Napoleon was received on his return from Elba, 8 March, 1815, and here he issued three decrees. Grenville Administrations. The first succeeded the Bute administration, 8 April, 1763; and resigned in July, 1765. George Grenville (born 1712, died 1770), first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. Earl Granville (succeeded by the duke of Bedford), lord president. Duke of Marlborough, privy seal. Earls of Halifax and Sandwich, secretaries of state. Earl of Egmont, admiralty. The estates of the attainted earl of Derwentwater (beheaded in 1716) bestowed upon it Marquess of Granby, ordnance. 1735 Lord Holland (late Mr. Fox), paymaster. A charter granted to the commissioners.. .6 Dec. 1775 Welbore Ellis, secretary-at-war. .1 Feb. 1873 A part of the buildings appropriated for a naval college, 1719 1742 Viscount Barrington, treasurer of the navy. Lord Henley (afterwards earl of Northington), lord chancellor. SECOND GRENVILLE ADMINISTRATION, formed after the death Lord Grenville, first lord of the treasury. Lord Henry Petty (afterwards marquess of Lansdowne), chancellor of the exchequer. Earl Fitzwilliam, lord president. Viscount Sidmouth (late Mr. Addington), privy seal. Earl Spencer, home secretary. William Windham, colonial secretary. Lord Erskine, lord chancellor. Sir Charles Grey (afterwards viscount Howick and earl Grey), Lord Auckland, board of trade. Lord Moira, master-general of the ordnance. Lord Ellenborough (lord chief-justice) had a seat in the cabinet. Thomas Gresham in 1575, founder of the Royal ExGresham College (London), established by sir change. He left a portion of his property in trust to the city and the Mercers' Company to endow this college for lectures in divinity, astronomy, music, geometry, civil law, physic, and rhetoric; he died 21 Nov. 1579. 1675 The lectures commenced in Gresham's house, near Broad street, June, 1597 (where the founders of the Royal So1762 ciety first met in 1645). The buildings were pulled 1765 down in 1768, and the Excise office erected on its site, the property having been acquired by the crown for an annuity of 5007. The lectures were then read in a room over the Royal Exchange for many years. On the rebuilding of the exchange, the Gresham committee erected signed by G. Smith, and opened for lectures 2 Nov. the present building in Basinghall street, which was de1843. It cost above 70007. In 1871 the college acquired a valuable collection of books and pictures, bequeathed by Mrs. Hollier. Changes respecting the lectures were advocated in 1875, and some made in 1876. 1811 Gregorian Calendar, see Calendar and New Style.-GREGORIAN CHANT received its name from pope Gregory I., who improved the Ambrosian chant, about 590.-GREGORIAN MODES, musical scales as set in order by pope Gregory the Great about 590. On these the ritual music of the Western churches is founded. Grenada, a West India island, discovered by Columbus in 1498; settled by the French, 1650; captured by the British, 5 April, 1762; retaken by the French, July, 1779; given up by them by treaty of Versailles, 3 Sept. 1783. Governor, Sandford Freeling, 1871; C. C. Graham, 1876; capt. G. C. Strahan, 1877; col. Robt. Wm. Harley, 1880; see Granada and New Granada. Grenade, an explosive missile, so named from the Spanish word granada, invented in 1594. It is a small hollow globe, or ball, of iron, about two inches in diameter, which is filled with fine powder, and set on fire by a fusce at a touch-hole. border). Here runaway marriages were contracted for Gretna Green (Dumfries, S. Scotland, near the many years, as Scotch law ruled that an acknowledgment before witnesses made a legal marriage. John Paisley, a tobacconist, and termed a blacksmith, who officiated from 1760, died in 1814. His first residence was at Megg's Hill, on the common or green betwixt Gretna and Springfield, to the last of which villages he removed in 1782. A man named Elliot was lately the principal officiating person. The General Assembly, in 1826, in vain attempted to suppress this system; but an act of parliament, passed in 1856, made these marriages illegal after that year, unless one of the persons married had lived in Scotland twenty-one days. Grey Administration succeeded the Wellington administration, which resigned 16 Nov. 1830. It carried the Parliamentary and Corporation Reform acts (which see), and terminated 9 July, 1834. Earl Grey,* first lord of the treasury. Lord Brougham, lord chancellor. Viscount Althorpe, chancellor of the exchequer. Earl of Durham, privy seal. Ground Game, see Game. Guadalupe Hidalgo, a city of San Luis Potosi, Mexico, where, on 2 Feb. 1848, the Mexican and United Viscounts Melbourne, Palmerston, and Goderich, home, foreign, States commissioners concluded a treaty of peace be and colonial secretaries. Sir James Graham, admiralty. tween the two countries; see Mexican War. By that Lord Auckland and Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards, 1830, lord treaty, New Mexico and Upper California became terriGlenelg), boards of trade and control. Lord Holland, chancellor of duchy of Lancaster. Duke of Richmond, earl of Carlisle, Mr. Wynne, etc. tories of the United States, for which the latter government paid the former $15,000,000, and assumed the payment of $3,500,000 due from Mexico to Americans for E. G. Stanley (afterwards earl of Derby), chief secretary for property destroyed. Grey Coat Hospital, Westminster, founded (for Columbus in 1493. The French took possession of it in girls) 1698; reconstituted 1873. Grey Friars, see Christ's Hospital. Griffith's Valuation of land in Ireland; that calculated by Mr., afterwards sir, Richard Griffith (appointed commissioner in 1828), and published about 1850; 4th edition, 1855; much discussed, 1880-1. Grimm's Law of the transmutation of consonants in the Aryan family of languages; propounded by Jacob L. Grimm in his "History of the German Languages," in 1848. Old High German.. Labials. Dentals. Gutturals. k ch Greck, Latin, Sanskrit...... p bfit d thk Gothic f pb th t d b (v) fpd t g ch k EXAMPLES: Sanskrit, pitri; Greek and Latin, pater; Italian, padre; Spanish, padre; French, père; Gothic, fadrein (pl.); Old High German, vatar; English, father. Griqua-Land West, a colony in the diamond fields, S. Africa; constituted 27 Oct. 1871; annexed to the British dominions, by sir H. Barkly, Nov. 1874. Grisons, a Swiss canton; see Caddee. It was overrun by the French in 1798 and 1799. The ancient league was abolished, and the Grisons became a member of the Helvetic confederation, 19 Feb. 1803. Grissell Case, see Parliament, 1879-80. Grist-tax (imposta sul macinato). Principle of the tax adopted by the Italian parliament, 1 April, 1868. Groat, from the Dutch groat, value of fourpence, was the largest silver coin in England until after 1351. Fourpenny pieces were coined in 1836 to the value of 70,8847.; in 1837, 16,038/.; discontinued since 1856. Grocers anciently meant "ingrossers or monopolizers," as appears by a statute 37 Edw. III. 1363: "Les marchauntz nomez engrossent totes maners de merchandises vendables." The Grocers' Company, one of the twelve chief companies of London, was established in 1345, and incorporated in 1429. Grochow, near Praga, a suburb of Warsaw. Here took place a desperate conflict between the Poles and Russians, 19, 20 Feb. 1831, the Poles remaining masters of the field of battle. The Russians shortly after retreated, having been foiled in their attempt to take Warsaw. They are said to have lost 7000 men, and the Poles 2000; see also Poland, 1861. Grog, sea term for rum and water, derived its name from admiral Edw. Vernon, who wore grogram breeches, and was hence called "Old Grog." About 1745, he ordered his sailors to dilute their rum with water.† *Born 13 March, 1764; M. P., as Charles Grey, in 1786; first lord of the admiralty and afterwards foreign secretary in 1806; resigned in 1806 on account of his favoring Roman Catholic emancipation; died 17 July, 1845. He did great service in the West Indies, by taking Portobello, Chagre, etc.; but by his disagreement with the commander of the land forces, the expedition against Carthagena, Guadeloupe, a West India island, discovered by 1635, and colonized it in 1664. Taken by the English in 1759, and restored in 1763. Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 1810. The allies, in order to allure the Swedes into the late coalition against France, gave them this island. It was, however, by the consent of Sweden, restored to France at the peace in 1814. was again taken by the British, 10 Aug. 1815, and restored to the French, July, 1816. It Guad-el-ras (N.W. Africa). Here the Spaniards signally defeated the Moors, 23 March, 1860, after a which he was ennobled. The preliminaries of peace severe conflict; gen. Prim manifested great bravery, for were signed on the 25th. Guano or HUANO (the Peruvian term for manure), the excrement of sea-birds that swarm on the coasts of Peru and Bolivia, and of Africa and Australia. It is mentioned by Herrera in 1601, and Garcilasso stated that the birds were protected by the incas. Humboldt was one of the first by whom it was brought to Europe, portation of guano into the United Kingdom appears to in order to ascertain its value in agriculture. The imin 1845 (of which 207,679 tons came from the western have commenced in 1839. 283,000 tons were imported coast of Africa); 243,016 tons in 1851 (of which 6522 tons came from Western Australia); 131,358 tons in 1864; 237,393 tons in 1865; 135,697 tons in 1866; 280,311 in 1870; 114,454 in 1875; 152,989 in 1877. Guarantees. The "Guarantee by Companies act," relating to the security by means of sureties required for persons employed in the public service, was passed 20 Aug. 1867 (30 & 31 Vict. c. 108). Guardian, a moderate high-church weekly journal, first published 21 Jan. 1846. Guards. The custom of having guards is said to have been introduced by Saul, 1093 B.C. Body guards were appointed to attend the kings of England, Horse guards were raised 4 Edw. VI. 1550. 1 Hen. VII. 1485. The royal regiment of guards was first raised by Charles II. (See Horse-guards, Yeomen, National and Imperial Guards.) defeated by the French, 19 Sept. 1734. The ancient tion. Paterson's "British Itinerary" appeared in 1776; duchy, long held by the dukes of Mantua, was seized by the last edition in 1840; when it was superseded by railthe emperor of Germany, 1746, and ceded to Parma, ways. Galignani's "Picture of Paris," 1814. Murray's 1748. After having been comprised in the Italian re"Handbook for Travellers on the Continent," the parent public, 1796, and subjected to other changes, it was an- of the series, appeared in 1836. nexed to Parma, 1815, and to Modena, 1847. Guatemala. A republic in Central America, revolted from Spain 1821, and declared independent 21 March, 1847. Constitution settled, 2 Oct. 1859. President (1862), gen. Raphael Carrera, elected 1851; appointed for life, 1854; died 14 April, 1865; succeeded by Vincent Cerna, 3 May, 1865-9; Manuel Garcia Granedos, Dec. 1872; R. Barrios, 7 May, 1873. A war between Guatemala and San Salvador broke out in Jan. 1863; and on 16 June the troops of the latter were totally defeated. An insurrection became formidable, July, 1871. Alliance with Honduras against San Salvador, March, 1872. Population, 1872, about 1,190,754. Col. Gonzales, commandant of San José de Guatemala, imprisoned, flogged, and nearly killed Mr. John Magee, the British consul, who was rescued by capt. Morse, of the Pacific Mail Company's steamer Arizona, about 24 April, 1874. Announced that Gonzales had been sentenced to five years' imprisonment, and that Mr. Magee had received 10,000l. as compensation, Oct. 1874. Plot to kill the president and his ministry; conspirators shot, 7 Nov. 1877. Guebres, see Parsees. Guelphic Order of knighthood was instituted for Hanover by the prince regent, afterwards George IV., 12 Aug. 1815. Guelphs and Ghibellines, names given to the papal and imperial factions who destroyed the peace of Italy from the twelfth to the end of the fifteenth century (the invasion of Charles VIII. of France in 1495). The origin of the names is ascribed to the contest for the imperial crown between Conrad of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, lord of Wiblingen (hence Ghibelin), and Henry, nephew of Welf, or Guelf, duke of Bavaria, in 1138. The former was successful; but the popes and several Italian cities took the side of his rival. Hie Guelf and Hie Gibelin are said to have been used as war-cries in 1140. at a battle before Weinsberg, in Würtemberg, when Guelf of Bavaria was defeated by the emperor Conrad IV., who came to help the rival duke, Leopold.* The Ghibellines were almost totally expelled from Italy in 1267, when Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufens, was beheaded by Charles of Anjou. Guelph is the name of the present royal family of England; see Brunswick and Hanover. Guides, a corps in the French army, especially charged with the protection of the person of the general, was formed by Bessières, under the direction of Bonaparte, who had been nearly carried off by the enemy, 30 May, 1796. Several squadrons of "guides' formed in 1848, to guard the ministers. They formed a portion of the imperial guard till Sept. 1870. were Guienne, a French province, was part of the dominions of Henry II. in right of his wife Eleanor, 1152. Philip of France seized it in 1293, which led to war. It was alternately held by England and France till 1453, when John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, in vain attempt ed to retake it from the latter. Guildhall (London) was built in 1411. When it was rebuilt (in 1669), after the great fire of 1666, no part of the ancient building remained, except the interior of the porch and the walls of the hall. The front was erected in 1789; and a new roof built, 1864-5. Beneath the west window are the colossal figures of Gog and Magog, said to represent a Saxon and an ancient Briton; replaced older ones, 1708; renewed, 1837. The hall can contain 7000 persons. Here were entertained the allied sovereigns in 1814, and Napoleon III., 19 April, 1855; and here the city industrial exhibition was held, 6 March, 1866, and the International Botanical banquet, 22 May, 1866. A memorial window, the gift of the cotton-workers of Lancashire, to commemorate the munificence of the metropolis towards them in the famine The princeof 1862-4, was uncovered, 15 July, 1868. consort memorial window was unveiled in the presence of prince Arthur, 3 Nov. 1870. A library existed in the Guildhall in 1426, from which books were taken by the protector Somerset in the reign of Edward VI. library was again set up; and reopened, Jan. 1828. The new handsome building by Horace Jones was opened by the lord chancellor Selborne, 5 Nov. 1872; see London. The The guild of Corpus Christi, York, had 14,800 members when a return respecting these guilds was ordered to be made. 1388. The Early English Text Society published the "Ordinances " of more than 100 guilds, 1870. The "Guild of Literature and Art" (including sir E. B. Lytton, C. Dickens, and others) founded an institution (on ground given by sir E. B. Lytton, at Stevenage) consisting of thirteen dwellings, retreats for artists, scholars, and men of letters, which were completed and inaugurated, 29 July, 1865. The revival of religious guilds began in 1851. with that of St. Alban, which held its 21st anniversary 20 June, 1872. Guilds Inquiry Commission, see Companies. Gueux (beggars), a name given by the comte de Barlaimont to the 300 Protestant deputies from the Low Countries, headed by Henri of Brederode and Louis of Nassau, who petitioned Margaret, governess of the Low Countries, to abolish the inquisition, 5 April, 1566. The Guilford Court-house, BATTLE AT. Gen. Greene deputies at once assumed the name as honorable, and retreated from the Catawba river, in South Carolina, immediately organized armed resistance to the govern-into Virginia, before pursuing Cornwallis, in the winter ment; see Holland. of 1781. He soon returned, and at Guilford Court-house, in North Carolina, he, with his army, fought Cornwallis and the British for more than two hours desperately. The Americans were repulsed, and the British took possession of the field, but at a cost that made the victory a sad disaster. "Another such victory," said Fox, in the British Parliament, "will ruin the British army." The British lost over 600 men; the Americans about 400 in killed and wounded, and 1000 who deserted to their homes. Guillotine, an instrument for causing immediate and painless death, named after its supposed inventor, a physician named Joseph Ignatius Guillotin. In 1866 M. Dubois, of Amiens, stated that the idea only was due to Guillotin, who at a meeting of the legislative assem bly in 1789 expressed an opinion that capital punishment should be the same for all classes. Accordingly, at the request of the assembly, M. Louis, secretary of the "Académie de Chirurgie," submitted to it on 20 March, 1792, a mode of capital punishment, "sure, quick, and uniform," which he had invented. The first person executed by it was a highway robber named Pelletier, on 25 April; and Dangremont was its first political victim, 21 Aug, following. Guillotin died in 1814. The guillotine at Paris was burned by the communist insurgents, 7 April, 1871. A similar instrument (called the Mannaia) is said to have been used in Italy, at Halifax in England (see Halifax), and in Scotland, there called the Maiden and the Widow. Guinea (W. coast of Africa) was discovered by the Portuguese about 1446. From their trade with the Moors originated the slave-trade, sir John Hawkins being the first Englishman who engaged in this traffic. Assisted by English gentlemen with money for the purpose, he sailed from England in Oct. 1562, with three ships, proceeded to the coast of Guinea, purchased or forcibly seized 300 negroes, sold them profitably at Hispaniola, and returned home richly laden with hides, sugar, ginger, and other merchandise, in Sept. 1563. This voyage led to similar enterprises.-Hakluyt. See Slave-trade. An African company to trade with Guinea was chartered 1588. The Dutch settlements here were transferred to Great Britain, 6 April, 1872; see Elmina, and Ashantees. Guineas, English gold coin, so named from having been first coined of gold brought by the African company from the coast of Guinea in 1663, valued then at 208.; but worth 30s. in 1695. Reduced at various times; in 1717 to 21s. In 1810 guineas were sold for 22s. 6d. ; in 1816, for 27s. In 1811 an act was passed forbidding their exportation, and their sale at a price above the current value, 21s. The first guineas bore the impression of an elephant, having been coined of African gold. Since the issue of sovereigns, 1 July, 1817, guineas have not been coined. Guinegate, BATTLES OF, 11 July, 1302, and 16 Aug. 1513; see Spurs. Guise, a French ducal family: Claude of Lorraine, first duke, a brave warrior, favored by Francis I.; died.. April, 1550 Francis, the great general, born, 1519; assassinated, 24 Feb. 1563 Henry, head of the Catholic league; born, 1550; revenged his father's death; assassinated by order of Henry III. .23 Dec. 1588 Charles, first opposed, and then submitted to, Henry IV.; died.. Henry died without issue.. 1640 ..1664 Gulliver's Travels, by Dean Swift, first published 1726-7. Gun, see Artillery, Fire-arms.-GUN CLUB, for pigeon-shooting, founded by sir Gilbert East, in 1862, had 200 members, noblemen and gentlemen, in July, 1867. The new gun-licenses produced in the financial year 1871-2, 62,4371. sociation also appointed a scientific committee to consider its merits. A complete decision was not arrived at. The first trial of English-made gun-cotton was made in the spring of 1864, at the manufactory at Stowmarket, Suffolk, by Messrs. Prentice. There was manufactured, by a company, the "patent safety gun-cotton," according to Mr. Abel's patent (including the pulping, compressing, and wet processes), based on researches commenced in 1866. The cotton was said to be explosive by detonation, and not by ignition. A great explosion took place at Stowmarket; 24 persons were killed (including A. E. H. and W. R. Prentice, managers); about 60 were dreadfully wounded, and nearly the whole town was destroyed as if by a bombardment, 11 Aug. 1871. The verdict at the inquest attributed the explosion to the cul pable "addition of sulphuric acid to the gun-cotton subsequent to its passing the tests required by government," 6 Sept. 1871. A government commission, appointed in Sept. to consider the manufacture and use of gun-cotton, reported in favor of both, with special regard to compressed gun-cotton, 13 Dec. 1871. Another report recommended this gun-cotton to be stored wet, with drying apparatus near; and to be kept in slighter boxes, 25 July, 1872. Mr. E. O. Brown, of the war department, Woolwich, discovers that wet gun-cotton can be exploded by concussion by a detonating fuse, about Nov. 1872. W. A. Dixon, about 1866. It is used as an explosive agent in mining, etc. Gundamuk, see Gandamak. Gun-license Act, passed 9 Aug. 1870. Annual license, 108. Licenses issued: year 1876-7, 77,068; 1877-8, 75,571. Gunpowder. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Bertholdus or Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Brunswick, in Germany, about 1320. But many writers maintain that it was known much earlier in various parts of the world. Some say that the Chinese and Hindus possessed it centuries before. Its composition, moreover, is expressly mentioned by Roger Bacon, in his treatise "De Nullitate Magia." He died in 1292 or 1294. Various substitutes for gunpowder have been recently invented, such as the white gunpowder of Mr. Horsley and Dr. Ehrhardt, and gun-paper by Mr. Hochstödten. A new gunpowder by M. Newmayer of Toya, near Leipsic, was discussed in Nov. 1866. "Pellet gunpowder" was ordered to be used in gun-charges in the army, March, 1868. An act to amend the law concerning the making, keeping, and carriage of gunpowder, etc., was passed 28 Aug. 1860, and other acts since; see Birmingham, 1870. In May, 1872, a company was formed to manufacture Mr. R. Punshon's patent cotton gunpowder, asserted to be very safe and controllable; see Chronoscope. Its use was denounced by Ariosto, 1516; by Jean Marot, 1532; by Cervantes, 1604; termed “ villanous saltpetre," by Shakespeare, about 1598. ENGLISH WAR GUNPOWDER: 75 parts nitrate of potash (saltpetre), 10 sulphur, 15 carbon. These proportions may be slightly varied. W. Hunter, after a careful examination of the question, in 1847, thus states the result: "July and August, 1346, may be safely assumed to be the time when the explosive force of gunpowder was first brought to bear on the military operations of the English nation." Above 11 tons of gunpowder on board the Lottie Sleigh, in the Mersey, exploded; much damage done in Liverpool and Birkenhead, but no lives lost, 16 Jan. 1864. Gun-cotton, a highly explosive substance, invented by professor Schönbein, of Basel, and made known in 1846. It is purified cotton, steeped in a mixture of equal parts of nitric acid and sulphuric acid, and after-About 104,000 lbs. of gunpowder exploded at the Belvedere wards dried, retaining the appearance of cotton wool; see Collodion. Its nature was known to Bracconot and Pelouze. The diet of Frankfort voted, 3 Oct. 1846, a recompense of 100,000 florins to prof. Schönbein and Dr. Bættger, as the inventors of the cotton powder, provided the authorities of Mayence, after seeing it tried, pronounced it superior to gunpowder as an explosive. Improvements were made in the manufacture of gun-cotton by an Austrian officer, Baron von Lenk, about 1852, and it was tried by a part of the Austrian army in 1855, but did not obtain favor. In 1862 details of the manufacture were communicated by the Austrian government to our own government, and Mr. Abel, our war-office chemist, was directed to experiment on the constitution and desirability of gun-cotton. The British As powder magazines of Messrs. Hall & Co., at Plumstead, near Woolwich; 13 persons perished, and the shock was felt at 50 miles' distance, 1 Oct. 1864. Searching inquiries were made into the circumstances, and new regulations for the keeping and transmission of powder issued in Nov.; see Dartford. Mr. Gale, a blind gentleman of Plymouth, on 22 June, 1865, patented his method of rendering gunpowder uninflammable by combining with it finely powdered glass, which can be readily separated by a sieve when the powder is required for use. Successful public experiments were made. Mr. Gale exhibited his process before the queen at Windsor, 10 Nov. 1865; and it was severely tested at a martello tower, near Hastings, 20 June, 1866. The attainment of perfect security was still doubtful. Gale's Protected Gunpowder Company was formed Oct. 1865, and wound up March, 1867. Great explosion at Messrs. Hall's powder mills, near Faversham; 11 men killed; much damage done; shock felt at |