Palestro (N. Italy). Here the Sardinians defeated the Austrians, 30, 31 May, 1859.

Palimpsest (from the Greek Táλ, again; and áw, I efface), parchments written on after the previous writing had been partially effaced. Cardinal Mai, by removing the second writing in some MSS., recovered the original. This was the case with Cicero's "De Republicâ," published by Mai in 1821. It had been covered by a treatise of Lactantius.

soon after under lord Palmerston; lord Derby and lord John Russell having each in vain endeavored to form an administration. On 22 Feb. Mr. Gladstone, sir James Graham, and Mr. Sidney Herbert resigned on account of the Sebastopol inquiry. Lord John Russell resigned 13 July. Lord Canning was appointed governor-general of India, 4 July, 1855. This cabinet resigned 20 Feb. 1858, in consequence of a vote of censure upon it for introducing the Foreign Conspiracy bill, and was succeeded by the Derby administration (which see).

First lord of the treasury, Henry viscount Palmerston.
Lord chancellor, lord Cranworth.

President of the council, earl Granville.

Lord privy seal, duke of Argyll; next, earl of Harrowby; after

wards the marquess of Clanricarde.

Secretaries-home, sir George Grey; foreign, earl of Claren-
don; colonial, Sidney Herbert (resigned Feb. 22); afterwards
lord J. Russell (resigned July 13); sir William Molesworth
(died 22 Oct. 1855); next, Henry Labouchere; war, lord
Panmure.
Chancellor of the exchequer, W. E. Gladstone (resigned 22 Feb.);
next, sir G. Cornewall Lewis.

First lord of the admiralty, sir James Graham (resigned 22
Board of control, sir Charles Wood; next, R. Vernon Smith.
Feb.); next, sir Charles Wood.
Public works, sir William Molesworth; next, sir B. Hall (ap-
pointed 22 July, 1855).

Postmaster-general, viscount Canning (appointed governor-
general of India, 4 July); next, duke of Argyll.
President of the board of trade, lord Stanley of Alderley.
Marquess of Lansdowne, without office.
Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, earl of Harrowby; next,
M. T. Baines (appointed 24 Nov. 1855).

Palladium, the statue of Pallas, said to have fallen from heaven near the tent of Ilus, as he was building Ilium, which the oracle of Apollo declared should never be taken so long as the Palladium was found within its walls. The Greeks are said to have obtained it by craft during the Trojan war, 1184 B.C; but some writers assert another statue was taken, and that the real Palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by Eneas, 1183 B.C., and preserved by the Romans with the greatest secrecy in the temple of Vesta.--PALLADIUM is a rare metal, discovered in platinum ore by Dr.Wollaston in 1803. Pallas, the planet, was discovered by Olbers, at Bremen, 28 March, 1802.

Palliser's Chilled Shot, see Cannon.

Pall Mall, a street near St. James palace, London, is named from a French game at ball (paille-maille, being a wooden mallet), resembling the modern croquet, having been played there about 1621. Among eminent inhabitants were Nell Gwynne and Dr. Thomas Sydenham. The PALL MALL GAZETTE, a daily independent political and literary journal, first appeared 7 Feb. 1865, and was edited by Mr. Frederick Greenwood till 1 May, 1880, when it became a liberal paper, edited by Mr. John Morley.

Palmerston Administration.* The resignation of the Aberdeen administration was announced 1 Feb. 1855, but nearly all its members returned to office

*Henry John Temple was born 20 Oct. 1784; was educated at Harrow, Edinburgh, and Cambridge; succeeded his father, viscount Palmerston, 1802; became M.P. and a junior lord of the admiralty, 1807; was secretary-at-war, 1809-28; and a secretary for foreign affairs, Nov. 1830-34; April, 1835, to Sept. 1841; and July, 1846, to Dec. 1851; and home secretary, Dec. 1852, to March, 1855, when he became first lord of the treas He was created lord warden of the Cinque Ports, 31 March, 1861; and master of the corporation of the Trinity House, 16 June, 1862. He sat for Tiverton, 1835–65. He died 18 Oct., and was buried in Westminster Abbey, 27 Oct. 1865. His statue at Romsey, by M. Noble, was uncovered by earl Russell, 21 July, 1868. Lady Palmerston died 11 Sept. 1869, aged 82.

ury.

First lord of the treasury, Henry viscount Palmerston. Lord high chancellor, John lord Campbell (died 23 June, 1861); succeeded by sir Richard Bethell, made lord Westbury, who Lord president of the council, carl Granville. resigned 4 July, 1865; succeeded by lord Cranworth. Lord privy seal, duke of Argyll.

Secretaries: foreign affairs, lord John (afterwards earl) Russell; colonies, duke of Newcastle; succeeded by Edward Cardwell, 8 April, 1864; home, sir G. Cornewall Lewis; succeeded by sir George Grey; war, Sidney (afterwards lord) Herbert; succeeded by sir G. C. Lewis (died 13 April, 1863), and by earl de Grey (1 May); India, sir Charles Wood. First lord of the admiralty, duke of Somerset. Chancellor of the exchequer, William Ewart Gladstone. President of the board of trade, Thomas Milner Gibson.

[This office was offered to Mr. R. Cobden, and declined by him.] Secretary of state for Ireland. Edward Cardwell; succeeded by sir R. Peel (not in the cabinet).

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, sir George Grey, bart. ; succeeded by Edward Cardwell; and by earl Clarendon, 8 Postmaster general, earl of Elgin (proceeded to China in April, April, 1864. 1860); succeeded by lord Stanley of Alderley, appointed Sept. 1860.

Poor-law board, T. Milner Gibson; succeeded by Charles P. Villiers (9 July, 1860).

PALMERSTON'S ACT for abatement of smoke nuisance (16 & 17 Vict. c. 128), 20 Aug. 1853.

Palm-Sunday. When Christ made his entry into Jerusalem, multitudes of the people who were come to the feast of the Passover took branches of the palmtree, and went forth to meet him, 33. It is usual, in some countries, to carry palms on the Sunday before Easter; hence called Palm-Sunday.

Palmyra (Syria) was supposed to have been the Tadmor in the wilderness built by Solomon, but was manifestly Grecian. The brilliant part of the history of Palmyra was under Odenatus and his Zenobia. queen, At the death of Odenatus, Zenobia assumed the title of queen of the East, in 267. Aurelian defeated her at Emesa in 272, and made her captive, 273, and killed Longinus, the philosopher, her friend. Palmyra is now inhabited by a few Arab families. The ruins were visited in 1751 by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them in 1753. Mr. Dawkins and Mr. Bruce also visited Palmyra.

ing plans, etc., invented by Christopher Scheiner, about 1603; improved by prof. Wallace, and called "Eidograph," about 1821.

Pantaleon, a musical instrument (a drum with tuned strings) invented by Pantaleon Hebenstreit about 1735.

Pantechnicon, a range of buildings, Motcombe street, Knightsbridge, London, W., erected by Seth Smith, as a receptacle for paintings, jewelry, furniture, carriages, etc., 1830; was destroyed by fire, 13, 14 Feb. 1874, when much property was lost; rebuilt 1874.

Panthays, Mahometans in the Chinese province Yunan, became independent under a sultan during the Tae-ping revolt, 1851-64. After its suppression, the Panthays, after a severe struggle, were also subdued. Their capital, Talifoo, was captured, and its inhabitants cruelly massacred in Feb. 1873. The Panthays sent an embassy to England in 1872, without effect. Sultan Suleiman committed suicide.

Pantheism, the formula of which is "everything is God, and God is one," was especially taught by Xenophanes, who died 500 B.C. tributed to Spinoza, Kant, Fichte, and other modern philosophers. Amalric of Chartres, censured for holding

The doctrine is at

the doctrine, recanted, thirteenth century. He is said

to have asserted that "all is God, and God is all."

Pantheon, at Rome, a circular temple built by Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus, 27 B.C. It had niches in the wall, where the image or representation of a particular god was set up; the gates brass, the beams covered with gilt brass, and the roof covered with silver. Pope Boniface III. dedicated it to the Virgin Mary and all the saints by the name of S. Maria della Rotunda, or "ad Martyres," A.D. 608.*-The PANTHEON IN LONDON was erected by subscription, and opened 27 Jan. 1772; formed into an opera - house; burned down 14 Jan. 1792; rebuilt for masquerades in 1795; opened as theatre, 1812, made a bazaar in 1834. The bazaar was closed in 1867, and the premises taken by Gilbey & Co., wine-merchants, who lent the south part for a temporary church.

Pantogen, see Atomic Theory.

Pantomimes were representations by gestures and attitudes among the Greeks, and were introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and Bathyllus, 22 B.C. Comic masques were introduced here from Italy about 1700. The first regular English pantomime is said to have been Harlequin Executed, produced by John Rich at the Lincoln's-inn-fields theatre, 26 Dec. 1717. Joseph Grimaldi (1779-1837) was the most eminent clown.

Paoli, MASSACRE AT. On the night of 20 Sept. 1777, a corps of 1500 Americans, under gen. Wayne, were attacked in their camp, near the Paoli tavern, in Pennsylvania, by a party of British and Hessians under gen. Greig, and about 300 of them were killed or mortally wounded in the gloom. Fifty-three of them were found upon the ground the next morning, and were buried in one grave. A marble monument stands over the sepulchre.

"Papal Aggression." In a consistory held in Rome, 30 Sept. 1850, the pope (Pius IX.) named fourteen new cardinals, of whom four only were Italians. Among them was Dr. Nicholas Wiseman, vicar-apostolic of the London district, who was at the same time nominated lord archbishop of Westminster.

Dr. Ullathorne enthroned as Roman Catholic bishop of
Birmingham in St. Chad's cathedral...

27 Oct. 1850 A pastoral letter from Dr. Wiseman read in all the Roman Catholic chapels of his see (all England parcelled out into Romish dioceses). .27 Oct. The answer of the bishop of London (Dr. Blomfield) to a memorial from the Protestant clergy of Westminster, against a Romish hierarchy in this country, was followed by the "Durham" letter from lord John Russell, then chief minister of the crown, to the bishop of * Victor Emmanuel, first king of united Italy, was buried here, 17 Jan. 1878.

Durham, in which he severely censured, not only the papal aggression, but also the proceedings of the tractarian clergy of the Church of England........4 Nov. 1850 Immediately from every quarter of England addresses poured in to her majesty the queen, calling upon her and the government to resist the usurpation; 6700 addresses, it is said, had been voted from nearly as many influential meetings up to.. ...31 Dec. Dr. Briggs, created Roman Catholic bishop of Beverley, was enthroned in St. George's chapel at York. .13 Feb. 1851 Dr. Browne created bishop of Clifton, and Dr. Burgess bishop of Shrewsbury; both consecrated in St. George's cathedral, Southwark.. ..27 July,

The Ecclesiastical Titles act, 14 & 15 Vict. c. 60, prohib ited the constitution of bishops of pretended provinces under a penalty of 1007.

It

was not acted upon, and was repealed.

.Aug. .....24 July, 1871

Papal Infallibility. This dogma, maintained by one party in the Roman church, tolerated by another, and utterly rejected by a third, was adopted and promulgated at the general council at Rome, 18 July, 1870, a great many bishops having withdrawn. The doctrine was inculcated by the false decretals of Isidore and oth

ers, but not adopted by the council of Trent; see Councommunicated at Munich for rejecting this dogma, 18 cils, XXI. Professor Döllinger, the historian, was exApril, 1871: he was made a D.C.L. at Oxford about 16 June following; see Old Catholics. The doctrine was strenuously attacked by Mr. W. E. Gladstone in his pamphlet "The Vatican Decrees," Nov. 1874. Papal States, see Rome and Popes.

Paper, see Papyrus. Paper was probably made in Egypt, and centuries before the Christian era. It was made of cotton about A.D. 600, and of rags about 1300. White coarse paper was made by sir John Speilman, a German, at Dartford, in England, 33 Eliz. 1580; and here paper-mills were erected.-Stow. Paper for writing and printing manufactured in England, and an act passed to encourage it, 2 Will. III. 1690; before this time we paid for these articles to France and Holland 100,000l. annually. The French refugees taught our people; we had made coarse brown paper almost exclusively until they came among us; we made white paper first in 1690.-Anderson. Paper-making by a machine was suggested by Louis Robert, who sold his model to Didot, the great printer, who brought it to England, and, conjointly with Fourdrinier, perfected the machinery. The latter obtained a patent for paper-making machinery in 1801, and for manufacturing paper of an indefinite length in 1807. The machinery was improved by Bryan Donkin. A sheet of paper 13,800 feet long and 4 feet wide was made at Whitehall mills, Derbyshire, in 1830; and one 21,000 feet long and 6 feet 3 inches wide was made at Colyton, in Devon, in 1860. Esparto, a Spanish grass, first imported in 1857, has been largely employed in the paper-manufacture since 1864. In 1866 wood was largely manufactured into paper at Philadelphia; and at the Paris exhibition, 1867, fine specimens of wood-paper were shown; see Parchment (note). The paper-duty, imposed in 1694 (producing, latterly, about 1,400,0007. annually), after having been the subject of agitation for several years, was repealed in 1861. Hop-stalks said to be used for paper-making in France, 1873.

Paper-mills in Great Britain, 1877, about 385 (England, 300; Scotland, 65; Ireland, 20); annual produce about 360,000 Paper Exhibition at Berlin, Aug. 1878: contained not only tons; value, 16,090,000l. great varieties of paper, but a paper house, tables, chairs, carpets, barrels, boats, etc.

The first paper-mill in America was built by William Ritting. huysen and William Bradford, near Philadelphia, in 1690. A second was built in Germantown in 1710. In 1870 there

* Mr. Joseph Hunter (in the Archæologia, xxxvii.) states that the earliest paper which he had seen was a MS. accountbook, dated 1302, probably of Bordeaux manufacture. He gives engravings of manufacturers' marks, French and English, the dates of which range from 1330 to 1431. He also gives an extract from a work by Bartholus, a writer of the middle of the fourteenth century, in which mention is made of a paper-manufactory in the Marches of Ancona. At the end of Wynkin de Worde's edition of Bartholomæus "De Proprietatibus Rerum," 1494, its thin paper, made by John Tate in England, is commended.

were in the United States 669 paper-factories, exclusive of those engaged in making paper-hangings, with an aggregate capital of $34,365,014. The annual products were valued at $18,676,935.

Paper Money, see Banks.

Paper-hangings, etc. Stamped paper for this purpose was first made in Spain and Holland about 1555. Made of velvet and floss, for hanging apartments, about 1620. The manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly improved in this country during the present century.PAPER BRICKS have been made in America; and paper tubing for water and gas, made by M. Jaloureau, of Paris, was shown in 1860.

Papier-maché. This manufacture (of paper-pulp combined with gum and sometimes with china clay) has existed for above a century. Martin, a German snuffbox-maker, is said to have learned the art from one Lefevre about 1740. In 1745 it was taken up by Baskerville, the printer at Birmingham, and soon spread over that district. Papier-maché is now largely employed in ornamenting the interior of buildings, etc.

Papin's Digester (see Steam), invented about 1681. Denis Papin, a French philosopher, assisted Boyle in his experiments about 1678.

Papists, see Roman Catholics.
Papua, see New Guinea.

Papyrus, the reed from which was made the paper of Egypt and India, used for writings until the discovery of parchment, about 190 B.C. Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of it from Egypt, lest Eumenes of Pergamus should make a library equal to that of Alexandria, 263 B.C. Many papyri were discovered at Herculaneum in 1754; and many were collected by the French in Egypt, 1798. A manuscript of the "Antiquities" of Josephus on papyrus, among the treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to the National Library at Paris, was restored in 1815.

Fac-similes of the largest known papyrus, found in 1855, behind Shedinat Habu, on the Nile, and now in the British Museum, were published with translations by the trustees in 1876.

Parable, see Fable.

Parachute, see Balloons, 1785, 1802, 1837, 1874.

Paraclete (Greek for comforter), a name given by Abelard to the convent which he founded in Champagne in 1122, of which Héloïse became the first abbess.

Paradise Lost, the great English epic by John Milton, appeared first in ten books in 1667; in twelve books in 1674.

Paradox (Greek, πapá, beyond, and dóža, opinion), something contrary to common opinion. Professor De Morgan's "Budget of Paradoxes" (of all kinds) was published in 1872. John Paget's "Paradoxes and Puzzles, Historical, Judicial, and Literary," published 1874.

Paraffine (from parum affinis, from its having little affinity with anything), also called photogen, a solid substance, somewhat like spermaceti, produced by distillation of coal, and first obtained by Reichenbach in 1830, and by Dr. Christison about the same time. It was procured from mineral oil by Mr. James Young about 1848 at Alfreton, in Derbyshire. Soon after it was largely obtained from Boghead coal. It is also obtained from Irish peat. It makes excellent candles. Much litigation ensued through interference with Mr. Young's patent-right. Paragraph Bibles, see under Bibles.

Paraguay, a republic in South America, discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1526; conquered by Alvarez Nuñez in 1535, and civilized by the Jesuits, who in 1608 commenced their missions there and held it till their expulsion in 1768. Paraguay rose against the Spanish yoke in 1811. In 1814 Dr. José G. R. Francia was elected dictator; he ruled vigorously, but tyrannically; he was succeeded, on his death in 1840, by Vibal. From 1814 to 1844 the country was rigidly closed against foreigners. The president, C. A. Lopez, elected in 1844, was succeeded by his son, Francis S. Lopez, Sept. 1862 (see below). Paraguay was recognized as an independent

་

66

..17 Aug. 1869 ..1 March, 1870

20 June,

12 Dec. 1871 .25 Nov. 1874

announced,

12 April, 1877 ...25 Nov. 1878

In

Pardons. General pardons were proclaimed at corouations, first by Edward III. in 1327. The king's power of pardoning is said to be derived à lege suæ dignitatis; and no other person has power to remit treason or felonies, stat. 27 Hen. VIII. 1535.-Blackstone. A pardon cannot follow an impeachment of the house of commons: stat. Will. III. 1700.

Parga, a city in European Turkey: retained its civic independence under the protection of Venice till 1797, It rewhen that state was conquered by the French. sisted various attempts to capture it, and in 1806 was garrisoned by Russians. It was given up to the French in 1807; taken by the English, 22 March, 1814; surrendered to the Turks, 1817; and abandoned by above 3000 of its inhabitants, who retired to the Ionian Isles, May, 1819. Parian Marbles, see Arundelian Marbles.

Paris (formerly Lutetia Parisiorum), the capital of France, situated on the river Seine, which cuts it into two unequal parts, the strongest being towards the north, and in which are three isles: la ville (the city), the ile St. Louis, and the ile Louviers. In the time of Julius Cæsar, Lutetia comprised the city only. It was greatly improved by the emperor Julian, who made it his residence while he governed Gaul, 355–361. It became successively the capital of the kingdoms of Paris, Soissons, and Neustria, and eventually of all the kingdom. Many ecclesiastical councils were held at Paris, 360-1528. The representative of the house of Orleans is styled count of Paris. Population of Paris in 1856, 1,178,262; in 1872, estimated population, 1,851,792; in 1876,1,988,806; see France.