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Be'aliah, "Yahweh is baal or lord," which survives in 1 Chron. xii. 5. However, when the name Baal was exclusively appropri ated to idolatrous worship (cf. Hos. ii. 16 seq.), abhorrence for the unholy word was marked by writing bosheth (shameful thing) for baal in compound proper names, and thus we get the usual forms Ishbosheth, Mephibosheth.

The great difficulty which has been felt by investigators in determining the character and attributes of the god Baal mainly arises from the original appellative sense of the word, and many obscure points become clear if we remember that when a title becomes a proper name it may be appropriated by different peoples to quite distinct deities. Baal being originally a title, and not a proper name, the innumerable baals could be distinguished by the addition of the name of a place or of some special attribute. Accordingly, the baals are not to be regarded necessarily as local variations of one and the same god, like the many Virgins or Madonnas of Catholic lands, but as distinct numina. Each community could speak of its own baal, although a collection of allied communities might share the same cult, and naturally, since the attributes ascribed to the individual baals were very similar, subsequent syncretism was facilitated.

fact. Created beings were originally of three orders-the intelligent | (God) was regarded as equivalent to Baal; cf. also the name or angels; the non-intelligent natural existences; and man, who mediated between these two orders. Intelligent beings are endowed with freedom; it is possible, but not necessary, that they should fall. Hence the fact of the fall is not a speculative but an historic truth. The angels fell through pride-through desire to raise themselves to equality with God; man fell by lowering himself to the level of nature. Only after the fall of man begins the creation of space, time and matter, or of the world as we now know it; and the motive of this creation was the desire to afford man an opportunity for taking advantage of the scheme of redemption, for bringing forth in purity the image of God according to which he has been fashioned. The physical philosophy and anthropology which Baader, in connexion with this, unfolds in various works, is but little instructive, and coincides in the main with the utterances of Boehme. In nature and in man he finds traces of the dire effects of sin, which has corrupted both and has destroyed their natural harmony. As regards ethics, Baader rejects the Kantian or any autonomic system of morals. Not obedience to a moral law, but realization in ourselves of the divine life is the true ethical end. But man has lost the power to effect this by himself; he has alienated himself from God, and therefore no ethical theory which neglects the facts of sin and redemption is satisfactory or even possible. The history of man and of humanity is the history of the redeeming love of God. The means whereby we put ourselves so in relation with Christ as to receive from Him his healing virtue are chiefly prayer and the sacraments of the church; mere works are never sufficient. Man in his social relations is under two great institutions. One is temporal, natural and limited-the state; the other is eternal, cosmopolitan and The Baal, as the head of each worshipping group, is the source universal-the church. In the state two things are requisite: first, of all the gifts of nature (cf. Hos. ii. 8 seq., Ezek. xvi. 19); as common submission to the ruler, which can be secured or given only the god of fertility all the produce of the soil is his, and his when the state is Christian, for God alone is the true ruler of men; adherents bring to him their tribute of first-fruits. He is the and, secondly, inequality of rank, without which there can be no organization. A despotism of mere power and liberalism, which patron of all growth and fertility, and, by the "uncontrolled naturally produces socialism, are equally objectionable. The ideal use of analogy characteristic of early thought," the Baal is the state is a civil community ruled by a universal or Catholic church, god of the productive element in its widest sense. Originating the principles of which are equally distinct from mere passive pietism, or faith which will know nothing, and from the Protestant doctrine, probably, in the observation of the fertilizing effect of rains which is the very radicalism of reason. and streams upon the receptive and reproductive soil, baalism Baader is, without doubt, among the greatest speculative theo- becomes identical with the grossest nature-worship. Joined with logians of modern Catholicism, and his influence has extended itself the baals there are naturally found corresponding female figures even beyond the precincts of his own church. Among those whom known as Ashtārōth, embodiments of Ashtōreth (see ASTARTE; he influenced were R. Rothe, Julius Müller and Hans L. Markensen. His works were collected and published by a number of his ISHTAR). In accordance with primitive notions of analogy, adherents-F. Hoffman, J. Hamberger, E. v. Schaden, Lutterbeck, which assume that it is possible to control or aid the powers of von Osten-Sacken and Schlüter-Baader's sämmtliche Werke nature by the practice of "sympathetic magic " (see MAGIC), the (16 vols., 1851-1860). Valuable introductions by the editors are pre- cult of the baals and Ashtarōth was characterized by gross fixed to the several volumes. Vol. xv. contains a full biography; vol. xvi. an index, and an able sketch of the whole system by sensuality and licentiousness. The fragmentary allusions to Lutterbeck. See F. Hoffmann, Vorhalle zur spekulativen Lehre the cult of Baal Peor (Num. xxv., Hos. ix. 10, Ps. cvi. 28 seq.) Baader's (1836); Grundzüge der Societats-Philosophie Franz Baader's exemplify the typical species of Dionysiac orgies that prevailed.* (1837); Philosophische Schriften (3 vols., 1868-1872); Die Weltalter On the summits of hills and mountains flourished the cult of the (1868); Biographie und Briefwechsel (Leipzig, 1887); J. Hamberger, Cardinalpunkte der Baaderschen Philosophie (1855); Fundamental givers of increase, and "under every green tree" was practised begriffe von F. B.'s Ethik, Politik, u. Religions-Philosophie (1858); the licentiousness which in primitive thought was held to secure J. A. B. Lutterbeck, Philosophische Standpunkte Baaders (1854); abundance of crops (see Frazer, Golden Bough, 2nd ed. vol. ii. pp. Baaders Lehre vom Weltgebäude (1866). The most satisfactory 204 sqq.). Human sacrifice (Jer. xix. 5), the burning of incense surveys are those given by Erdmann, Versuch einer Gesch. d. neuern Phil. iii. 2, pp. 583-636; J. Claassen, Franz von Baaders Leben und (Jer. vii. 9), violent and ecstatic exercises, ceremonial acts of theosophische Werke (Stuttgart, 1886-1887), and Franz von Baaders bowing and kissing, the preparing of sacred mystic cakes, appear Gedanken über Staat und Gesellschaft (Gütersloh, 1890); Otto among the offences denounced by the Israelite prophets, and Pfleiderer, Philosophy of Religion (vol. ii., Eng. trans. 1887); R. show that the cult of Baal (and Astarte) included the characterFalckenberg, History of Philosophy, pp. 472-475 (trans. A. C. Arm-istic features of heathen worship which recur in various parts strong, New York, 1893); Reichel, Die Sozietätsphilosophie Franz v. Baaders (Tübingen, 1901); Kuno Fischer, Zur hundertjährigen Geburtstagfeier Baaders (Erlangen, 1865).

BAAL, a Semitic word, which primarily signifies lord, owner or inhabitant,' and then, in accordance with the Semitic way of looking at family and religious relations, is specially appropriated to express the relation of a husband to his wife and of the deity to his worshipper. In the latter usage it indicated not that the god was the lord of the worshipper, but rather the possessor of, or ruler in, some place or district. In the Old Testament it is regularly written with the article, i.e. "the Baal "; and the baals of different tribes or sanctuaries were not necessarily conceived as identical, so that we find frequent mention of Baalim, or rather "the Baalim" in the plural. That the Israelites even applied the title of Baal to Yahweh himself is proved by the occurrence of such names as Jerubbaal (Gideon), Eshbaal (one of Saul's sons) and Beelíada (a son of David, I Chron. xiv. 7). The last name appears in 2 Sam. v. 16 as Eliada, showing that El 1Cf. its use as a noun of relation, e.g. a ba'al of hair, "a hairy man (2 Kings i. 8), b. of wings, a winged creature," and in the plural, b. of arrows, archers (Gen. xlix. 23), b. of oath, conspirators" (Neh. vi. 18).

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of the Semitic world, although attached to other names.

By an easy transition the local gods of the streams and springs which fertilized the increase of the fields became identified with

Compounds with geographical terms (towns, mountains), e.g. Baal of Tyre, of Lebanon, &c., are frequent; see G. B. Gray, Heb. Proper Names, pp. 124-126. Baal-berith or El-berith of Shechem Judg. ix. 4, 46) is usually interpreted to be the Baal or God of the covenant, but whether of covenants in general or of a particular covenant concluded at Shechem is disputed. The Baλuapkws (near Beirut) apparently presided over dancing; another compound (in Cyprus) seems to represent a Baal of healing. On the "Baal of flies" see BEELZEBUB.

The general analogy shows itself further in the idea of the deity as the husband (ba'al) of his worshippers or of the land in which they dwell. The Astarte of Gabal (Byblus) was regularly known as the ba'alath (fem. of baal), her real name not being pronounced (perhaps 4 See further Clermont-Ganneau, Pal. Explor. Fund Quart. Stat., 1901, pp. 239, 369 sqq.; Büchler, Rev. d'études juives, 1901, pp. 125 seq.

out of reverence).

The extent to which elements of heathen cult entered into purer types of religion is illustrated in the worship of Yahweh. The sacred cakes of Astarte and old holy wells associated with het cult were later even transferred to the worship of the Virgin (Ency. Bib. col. 3993; Rouvier, in Bull. Aṛchéol., 1900, p. 170).

the common source of all streams, and proceeding along this line it was possible for the numerous baals to be regarded eventually as mere forms of one absolute deity. Consequently, the Baal could be identified with some supreme power of nature, e.g. the heavens, the sun, the weather or some planet. The particular line of development would vary in different places, but the change from an association of the Baal with earthly objects to heavenly is characteristic of a higher type of belief and appears to be relatively later. The idea which has long prevailed that Baal was properly a sky-god affords no explanation of the local character of the many baals; on the other hand, on the theory of a higher development where the gods become heavenly or astral beings, the fact that ruder conceptions of nature were still retained (often in the unofficial but more popular forms of cult) is more intelligible.

A specific Baal of the heavens appears to have been known among the Hittites in the time of Rameses II., and considerably later, at the beginning of the 7th century, it was the title of one of the gods of Phoenicia. In Babylonia, from a very early period, Baal became a definite individual deity, and was identified with the planet Jupiter. This development is a mark of superior culture and may have been spread through Babylonian influence. Both Baal and Astarte were venerated in Egypt at Thebes and Memphis in the XIXth Dynasty, and the former, through the influence of the Aramaeans who borrowed the Babylonian spelling Bel, ultimately became known as the Greek Bēlos who was identified with Zeus.

Of the worship of the Tyrian Baal, who is also called Melkart (king of the city), and is often identified with the Greek Heracles, but sometimes with the Olympian Zeus, we have many accounts in ancient writers, from Herodotus downwards. He had a magnificent temple in insular Tyre, founded by Hiram, to which gifts streamed from all countries, especially at the great feasts. The solar character of this deity appears especially in the annual feast of his awakening shortly after the winter solstice (Joseph. C. Apion. i 18). At Tyre, as among the Hebrews, Baal had his symbolical pillars, one of gold and one of smaragdus, which, transported by phantasy to the farthest west, are still familiar to us as the Pillars of Hercules. The worship of the Tyrian Baal was carried to all the Phoenician colonies. His name occurs as an element in Carthaginian proper names (Hannibal, Hasdrubal, &c.), and a tablet found at Marseilles still survives to inform us of the charges made by the priests of the temple of Baal for offering sacrifices.

The history of Baalism among the Hebrews is obscured by the difficulty of determining whether the false worship which the prophets stigmatize is the heathen worship of Yahweh under a conception, and often with rites, which treated him as a local nature god; or whether Baalism was consciously recognized to be distinct from Yahwism from the first. Later religious practice was undoubtedly opposed to that of earlier times, and attempts were made to correct narratives containing views which had come to be regarded as contrary to the true worship of Yahweh. The Old Testament depicts the history of the people as a series of acts of apostasy alternating with subsequent penitence and return to Yahweh, and the question whether this gives effect to actual conditions depends upon the precise character of the elements of Yahweh worship brought by the Israelites into Palestine. This is still under dispute. There is strong evidence at all events that many of the conceptions are contrary to historical fact, and the points of similarity between

native Canaanite cult and Israelite worship are so striking that only the persistent traditions of Israel's origin and of the work of Moses compel the conclusion that the germs of specific Yahweh worship existed from his day. The earliest certain reaction against Baalism is ascribed to the reign of Ahab, whose marriage with Jezebel gave the impulse to the introduction of a particular form of the cult. In honour of his wife's god, the king, following the example of Solomon, erected a temple to the Tyrian Baal (see above). This, however, did not prevent him from remaining a follower of Yahweh, whose prophets he still consulted, and 1 The sanctuary of Heracles at Daphne near Antioch was properly that of the Semitic Baal, and at Amathus Jupiter Hospes takes the place of Heracles or Malika, in which the Tyrian Melkart is to be recognized (W. R. Smith, Rel. Sem. 2nd ed. pp. 178, 376). See further PHOENICIA.

whose protection he still cherished when he named his sons Ahaziah and Jehoram ("Yah[weh] holds," "Y. is high "). The antagonism of Elijah was not against Baalism in general, but against the introduction of a rival deity. But by the time of Hosea (ii. 16 seq.) a further advance was marked, and the use of the term "Baal" was felt to be dangerous to true religion. Thus there gradually grew up a tendency to avoid the term, and in accordance with the idea of Ex. xxiii. 13, it was replaced by the contemptuous bōsheth," shame " (see above). However, the books of Deuteronomy and Jeremiah (cf. also Zeph. i. 4) afford complete testimony for the prevalence of Baalism as late as the exile, but prove that the clearest distinction was then drawn between the pure worship of Yahweh the god of Israel and the inveterate and debased cults of the gods of the land. (See further HEBREW RELIGION; PROPHET.)

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BIBLIOGRAPHY.-W. Robertson Smith, Relig. Semites, 2nd ed. pp. 93-113 (against his theory of the introduction of Baal among the Arabs see M. J. Lagrange, Etudes d. relig, sem, pp. 83-98). For the reading Baal" in the Amarna tablets (Palestine, about 1400 B.C.) see Knudtzon, Beitr. z. Assyriol. (1901), pp. 320 seq., 415; other cuneiform evidence in E. Schrader's Keilinsch, u. Alle Test. 3rd ed. p. 357 (by H. Zimmern; see also his Index, sub voce). On Baal-Shamem (B. of the heavens) M. Lidzbarski's monograph (Ephemeris, i. 243260, ii. 120) is invaluable, and this work, with his Handbuch d. nordsemit. Epigraphik, contains full account of the epigraphical material. See Bacthgen, Beitr. z. semit. Religionsgesch. pp. 17-32; also the articles on Baal by E. Meyer in Roscher's Lexikon, and G. F. Moore in Ency. Bib. (On Beltane fires and other apparent points of connexion with Baal it may suffice to refer to Aug. Fick, Vergleich. Wörterbuch, who derives the element bel from an old Celtic root meaning shining, &c.) (W. R. S.; S. A. C.)

BAALBEK (anc. Heliopolis), a town of the Buka'a (Coelesyria), altitude 3850 ft., situated E. of the Litani and near the parting between its waters and those of the Asi. Pop. about 5000, including 2000 Metawali and 1000 Christians (Maronite and Orthodox). Since 1902 Baalbek has been connected by railway with Rayak (Rejak) on the Beirut-Damascus line, and since 1907 with Aleppo. It is famous for its temple ruins of the Roman period, before which we have no record of it, certain though it be that Heliopolis is a translation of an earlier native name, in which Baal was an element. It has been suggested, but without good reason, that this name was the Baalgad of Josh. xi. 17.

Heliopolis was made a colonia probably by Octavian (coins of in which Trajan consulted the oracle. The foundation of the 1st century A.D.), and there must have been a Baal temple there present buildings, however, dates from Antoninus Pius, and their dedication from Septimius Severus, whose coins first show the before the reigns of Caracalla and Philip. In commemoration, no two temples. The great courts of approach were not finished doubt, of the dedication of the new sanctuaries, Severus conferred the jus Italicum on the city. The greater of the two temples was sacred to Jupiter (Baal), identified with the Sun, with whom lesser temple was built in honour of Bacchus (not the Sun, as were associated Venus and Mercury as σύμβωμοι θεοί. The formerly believed). Jupiter-Baal was represented locally as a hand and lightning and ears of corn in his left. Two bulls beardless god in long scaly drapery, holding a whip in his right supported him. In this guise he passed into European worship in the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. The extreme licence of the Heliopolitan worship is often animadverted upon by early Christian writers, and Constantine, making an effort to curb the

Venus cult, built a basilica. Theodosius erected another, with western apse, in the main court of the Jupiter temple.

When Abu Ubaida (or Obaida) attacked the place after the city and yielded a rich booty. It became a bone of contention Moslem capture of Damascus (A.D. 635), it was still an opulent between the various Syrian dynasties and the caliphs first of Damascus, then of Egypt, and in 748 was sacked with great slaughter. In 1090 it passed to the Seljuks, and in 1134 to Jenghiz Khan; but after 1145 it remained attached to Damascus and was captured by Saladin in 1175. The Crusaders raided its valley more than once, but never took the city. Three times shaken by earthquake in the 12th century, it was dismantled by Hulagu in 1260. But it revived, and most of its fine Moslem mosque and fortress architecture, still extant, belongs to the

reign of Sultan Kalaûn (1282) and the succeeding century, during which Abulfeda describes it as a very strong place. In 1400 Timur pillaged it, and in 1517 it passed, with the rest of Syria, to the Ottoman dominion. But Ottoman jurisdiction was merely nominal in the Lebanon district, and Baalbek was really in the hands of the Metawali (see LEBANON), who retained it against other Lebanon tribes, until "Jezzar " Pasha, the rebel governor of the Acre province, broke their power in the last half of the 18th century. The anarchy which succeeded his death in 1804 was only ended by the Egyptian occupation (1832). With the treaty of London (1840) Baalbek became really Ottoman, and since the settlement of the Lebanon (1864) has attracted great numbers of tourists.

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The ruins were brought to European notice by Pierre Belon in 1555, though previously visited, in 1507, by Martin von Baumgarten. Much damaged by the earthquake of 1759, they remained a wilderness of fallen blocks till 1901, when their clearance was undertaken by the German Archaeological Institute and entrusted to the direction of Prof. O. Puchstein. They lie mainly on the ancient Acropolis, which has been shored up with huge walls to form a terrace raised on vaults and measuring about 1100 ft. from E. to W. The Propylaca lie at the E. end, and were approached by a flight of steps now quarried away. These propylaea formed a covered hall, or vestibule, about 35 ft. deep, flanked with towers richly decorated within and without (much damaged by Arab reconstruction). Columns stood in front, whose bases still exist and bear the names of Antoninus Pius and Julia Domna. Hence, through a triple gateway in a richly ornamented screen, access is gained to the first or Hexagonal Court, which measures about 250 ft. from angle to angle. It is now razed almost to foundation level; but it can be seen that it was flanked with halls each having four columns in front. A

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portal on the W., so ft. wide, flanked by lesser ones 10 ft. wide (that on the N. is alone preserved), admitted to the Main Court, in whose centre was the High Altar of Burnt Sacrifice. This altar and a great tank on the N. were covered by the foundations of Theodosius' basilica and not seen till the recent German clearance The Main Court measures about 440 ft. from E. to W. and 370 ft. from N. to S., thus covering about 3 acres. It had a continuous fringe of covered halls of various dimensions and shapes, once richly adorned with statues and columnar screens. Some of these halls are in fair preservation. Stairs on the W. led up to the temple of Jupiter-Baal, now much ruined, having only 6 of the 54 columns of its peristyle erect. Three fell in the earthquake of 1759. Those still standing are Nos. 11 to 16 in the southern rank. Their bases and shafts are not finished, though the capitals and rich entablature seem completely worked. They have a height of 60 ft. and diameter of 7 ft., and are mostly formed of three blocks. The architrave is threefold and bears a frieze with lion-heads, on which rest a moulding and cornice.

The temple of Bacchus stood on a platform of its own formed by a southern projection of the Acropolis. It was much smaller than the Jupiter temple, but is better preserved. The steps of the E. approach were intact up to 1688. The temple was peripteral with 46 columns in its peristyle. These were over 52 ft. in height and of the Corinthian order, and supported an entablature 7 ft. high with double frieze, connected with the cella walls by a coffered ceiling, which contained slabs with heads of gods and emperors. Richard Burton, when consul-general at Damascus in 1870, cleared an Arab screen out of the vestibule, and in consequence the exquisite doorway leading into the cella can now be well seen. On either side of it staircases constructed within columns lead to the roof. The cracked door-lintel, which shows an eagle on the soffit, was propped up first by Burton, and lately, more securely, by the Germans. The cella, now ruinous, had inner wall-reliefs and engaged columns, which supported rich entablatures.

The vaults below the Great Court of the Jupiter Temple, together with the supporting walls of the terrace, are noticeable. In the W. wall of the latter occur the three famous megaliths, which gave the name Trilithon to the Jupiter temple in Byzantine times. These measure from 63 to 64 ft. in length and 13 ft. in height and breadth, and have been raised 20 ft. above the ground. They are the largest blocks known to have been used in actual construction, but are excelled by another block still attached to its bed in the quarries half a mile S.W. This is 68 ft. long by 14 ft. high and weighs about 1500 tons. For long these blocks were supposed, even by European visitors, to be relics of a primeval race of giant builders.

In the town, below the Acropolis, on the S.E. is a small temple of the late imperial age, consisting of a semicircular cella with a peristyle of eight Corinthian columns, supporting a projecting entablature. The cella is decorated without with a frieze, and within with pillars and arcading. This temple owes its preservation to its use as a church of St Barbara, a local martyr, also claimed by the Egyptian Heliopolis. Hence the building is known as Barbarat al-atika. Considerable remains of the N. gate of the city have also been exposed.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-These vast ruins, more imposing from their immensity than pleasing in detail, have been described by scores of travellers and tourists; but it will be sufficient here to refer to the following works:-(First discoverers) M. von Baumgarten, Peregrinatio in... Syriam (1594); P. Belon, De admirabili operum antiquorum praestantia (1553); and Observacions, &c. (1555). (Before earthquake of 1759) R. Wood, Ruins of Baalbec (1757). (1892). (After excavation) O. Puchstein, Führer durch die Ruinen (Before excavation) H. Frauberger, Die Akropolis von Baalbek v. Baalbek (1905), (with Th. v. Lüpke) Ansichten, &c. (1905). See also R. Phend Spiers: Quart. Stat. Pal. Exp. Fund, 1904, PP. 58. and the Builder, 11 Feb. 1905.

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BAARN, a small town in the province of Utrecht, Holland, 5 m. by rail E. of Hilversum, at the junction of a branch line to Utrecht. Like Hilversum it is situated in the midst of pictur esque and wooded surroundings, and is a favourite summer resort of people from Amsterdam. The Baarnsche Bosch, or wood, stretches southward to Soestdyk, where there is a royal country.

seat, originally acquired by the state in 1795. Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, who was very fond of the spot, formed a zoological collection here which was removed to Amsterdam in 1809. In 1816 the estate was presented by the nation to the prince of Orange (afterwards King William II.) in recognition of his services at the battle of Quatre Bras. Since then the palace and grounds have been considerably enlarged and beautified. Close to Baarn in the south-west were formerly situated the ancient castles of Drakenburg and Drakenstein, and at Vuursche there is a remarkable dolmen.

BABADAG, or BABATAG, a town in the department of Tulcea, Rumania; situated on a small lake formed by the river Taitza among the densely wooded highlands of the northern Dobrudja. Pop. (1900) about 3500. The Taitza lake is divided only by a strip of marshland from Lake Razim, a broad landlocked sheet of water which opens on the Black Sea. Babadag is a market for the wool and mutton of the Dobrudja. It was founded by Bayezid I., sultan of the Turks from 1389 to 1403. It occasionally served as the winter headquarters of the Turks in their wars with Russia, and was bombarded by the Russians in 1854. BABBAGE, CHARLES (1792-1871), English mathematician and mechanician, was born on the 26th of December 1792 at Teignmouth in Devonshire. He was educated at a private school, and afterwards entered St Peter's College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1814. Though he did not compete in the mathematical tripos, he acquired a great reputation at the university | In the years 1815-1817 he contributed three papers on the "Calculus of Functions" to the Philosophical Transactions, and in 1816 was made a fellow of the Royal Society. Along with Sir John Herschel and George Peacock he laboured to raise the standard of mathematical instruction in England, and especially endeavoured to supersede the Newtonian by the Leibnitzian notation in the infinitesimal calculus. Babbage's attention seems to have been very early drawn to the number and importance of the errors introduced into astronomical and other calculations through inaccuracies in the computation of tables. He contributed to the Royal Society some notices on the relation between notation and mechanism; and in 1822, in a letter to Sir H. Davy on the application of machinery to the calculation and printing of mathematical tables, he discussed the principles of a calculating engine, to the construction of which he devoted many years of his life. Government was induced to grant its aid, and the inventor himself spent a portion of his private fortune in the prosecution of his undertaking. He travelled through several of the countries of Europe, examining different systems of machinery; and some of the results of his investigations were published in the admirable little work, Economy of Machines and Manufactures (1834). The great calculating engine was never completed; the constructor apparently desired to adopt a new principle when the first specimen was nearly complete, to make it not a difference but an analytical engine, and the government declined to accept the further risk (see CALCULATING MACHINES). From 1828 to 1839 Babbage was Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cambridge. He contributed largely to several scientific periodicals, and was instrumental in founding the Astronomical (1820) and Statistical (1834) Societies. He only ence endeavoured to enter public life, when, in 1832, he stood unsuccessfully for the borough of Finsbury. During the later years of his life he resided in London, devoting himself to the construction of machines capable of performing arithmetical and even algebraical calculations. He died at London on the 18th of October 1871. He gives a few biographical details in his Passages from the Life of a Philosopher (1864), a work which throws considerable light upon his somewhat peculiar character. His works, pamphlets and papers were very numerous; in the Passages he enumerates eighty separate writings. Of these the most important, besides the few already mentioned, are Tables of Logarithms (1826); Comparative View of the Various Institutions for the Assurance of Lives (1826); Decline of Science in England (1830); Ninth Bridgewater Treatise (1837); The Exposition of 1851 (1851).

See Monthly Noticės, Royal Astronomical Society, vol. 32.

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BABEL, the native name of the city called Babylon (q.v.) by the Greeks, the modern Hillah. It means "gate of the god," not"gate of the gods," corresponding to the Assyrian Bab-ili. According to Gen. xi. 1-9 (J), mankind, after the deluge, travelled from the mountain of the East, where the ark had rested, and settled in Shinar. Here they attempted to build a city and a tower whose top might reach unto heaven, but were miraculously prevented by their language being confounded. In this way the diversity of human speech and the dispersion of mankind were accounted for; and in Gen. xi. 9 (J) an etymology was found for the name of Babylon in the Hebrew verb balal," to confuse or confound," Babel being regarded as a contraction of Balbel. In Gen. x. 10 it is said to have formed part of the kingdom of Nimrod. The origin of the story has not been found in Babylonia. The tower was no doubt suggested by one of the temple towers of Babylon. W. A. Bennet (Genesis, p. 169; cf. Hommel in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible) suggests E-Saggila, the great temple of Merodach (Marduk). The variety of languages and the dispersion of mankind were regarded as a curse, and it is probable that, as Prof. Cheyne (Encyclopaedia Biblica, col. 411) says, there was an ancient North Semitic myth to explain it. The event was afterwards localized in Babylon. The myth, as it appears in Genesis, is quite polytheistic and anthropomorphic. According to Cornelius Alexander (frag. 10) and Abydenus (frags. 5 and 6) the tower was overthrown by the winds; according to Yaqut (i. 448 f.) and the Lisan el-'Arab (xiii. 72) mankind were swept together by winds into the plain afterwards called "Babil," and were scattered again in the same way (see further D. B. Macdonald in the Jewish Encyclopaedia). A tradition similar to that of the tower of Babel is found in Central America. Xelhua, one of the seven giants rescued from the deluge, built the great pyramid of Cholula in order to storm heaven. The gods, however, destroyed it with fire and confounded the language of the builders. Traces of a somewhat similar story have also been met with among the Mongolian Tharus in northern India (Report of the Census of Bengal, 1872, p. 160), and, according to Dr Livingstone, among the Africans of Lake Ngami. The Esthonian myth of " the Cooking of Languages " (Kohl, Reisen in die Ostsee provinzen, ii. 251-255) may also be compared, as well as the Australian legend of the origin of the diversity of speech (Gerstäcker, Reisen, vol. iv. pp. 381 seq.).

BAB-EL-MANDEB (Arab. for " The Gate of Tears "), the strait between Arabia and Africa which connects the Red Sea (q.v.) with the Indian Ocean. It derives its name from the dangers attending its navigation, or, according to an Arabic legend, from the numbers who were drowned by the earthquake which separated Asia and Africa. The distance across is about 20 m. from Ras Menheli on the Arabian coast to Ras Siyan on the African. The island of Perim (q.v.), a British possession, divides the strait into two channels, of which the eastern, known as the Bab Iskender (Alexander's Strait), is 2 m. wide and 16 fathoms deep, while the western, or Dact-el- Mayun, has a width of about 16 m. and a depth of 170 fathoms. Near the African coast lies a group of smaller islands known as the "Seven Brothers." There is a surface current inwards in the eastern channel, but a strong under-current outwards in the western channel.

BABENBERG, the name of a Franconian family which held the duchy of Austria before the rise of the house of Habsburg. Its earliest known ancestor was one Poppo, who early in the 9th century was count in Grapfeld. One of his sons, Henry, called margrave and duke in Franconia, fell fighting against the Normans in 886; another, Poppo, was margrave in Thuringia from 880 to 892, when he was deposed by the German king Arnulf. The family had been favoured by the emperor Charles the Fat, but Arnulf reversed this policy in favour of the rival family of the Conradines. The leaders of the Babenbergs were the three sons of Duke Henry, who called themselves after their castle of Babenberg on the upper Main, round which their possessions centred. The rivalry between the two families was intensified by their efforts to extend their authority in the region of the middle Main, and this quarrel, known as the " Babenberg feud," came to a head at the beginning of the 10th century during the

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troubled reign of the German king, Louis the Child. Two of BABER, or BABAR (1483-1530), a famous conqueror of India the Babenberg brothers were killed, and the survivor Adalbert and founder of the so-called Mogul dynasty. His name was was summoned before the imperial court by the regent Hatto I., Zahir ud-din-Mahomet, and he was given the surname of Baber, archbishop of Mainz, a partisan of the Conradines. He refused meaning the tiger. Born on the 14th of February 1483, he was to appear, held his own for a time in his castle at Theres a descendant of Timur, and his father, Omar Sheik, was king of against the king's forces, but surrendered in 906, and in spite of Ferghana, a district of what is now Russian Turkestan. Omar a promise of safe-conduct was beheaded. From this time the died in 1495, and Baber, though only twelve years of age, Babenbergs lost their influence in Franconia; but in 976 Leopold, succeeded to the throne. An attempt made by his uncles to a member of the family who was a count in the Donnegau, is dislodge him proved unsuccessful, and no sooner was the young described as margrave of the East Mark, a district not more sovereign firmly settled than he began to meditate an extension than 60 m. in breadth on the eastern frontier of Bavaria which of his own dominions. In 1497 he attacked and gained possession grew into the duchy of Austria. Leopold, who probably received | of Samarkand, to which he always seems to have thought he the mark as a reward for his fidelity to the emperor Otto II. had a natural and hereditary right. A rebellion among his during the Bavarian rising in 976, extended its area at the expense nobles robbed him of his native kingdom, and while marching of the Hungarians, and was succeeded in 994 by his son to recover it his troops deserted him, and he lost Samarkand Henry I. Henry, who continued his father's policy, was followed also. After some reverses he regained both these places, but in in 1018 by his brother Adalbert and in 1055 by his nephew 1501 his most formidable enemy, Shaibani (Sheibani) Khan, Ernest, whose marked loyalty to the emperors Henry III. and ruler of the Uzbegs, defeated him in a great engagement and Henry IV. was rewarded by many tokens of favour. The drove him from Samarkand. For three years he wandered about succeeding margrave, Leopold II., quarrelled with Henry IV., trying in vain to recover his lost possessions; at last, in 1504, who was unable to oust him from the mark or to prevent the he gathered some troops, and crossing the snowy Hindu Kush succession of his son Leopold III. in 1096. Leopold supported besieged and captured the strong city of Kabul. By this Henry, son of Henry IV., in his rising against his father, but was dexterous stroke he gained a new and wealthy kingdom, and soon drawn over to the emperor's side, and in 1106 married his completely re-established his fortunes. In the following year daughter Agnes, widow of Frederick I., duke of Swabia. He he united with Hussain Mirza of Herat against Shaibani. The declined the imperial crown in 1125. His zeal in founding death of Hussain put a stop to this expedition, but Baber spent monasteries earned for him his surname "the Pious," and a year at Herat, enjoying the pleasures of that capital. He canonization by Pope Innocent VIII. in 1485. He is regarded returned to Kabul in time to quell a formidable rebellion, but as the patron saint of Austria. One of Leopold's sons was Otto, two years later a revolt among some of the leading Moguls bishop of Freising (q.v.). His eldest son, Leopold IV., became drove him from his city. He was compelled to take to flight margrave in 1136, and in 1139 received from the German king with very few companions, but his great personal courage and Conrad III. the duchy of Bavaria, which had been forfeited by daring struck the army of his opponents with such dismay that Duke Henry the Proud. Leopold's brother Henry (surnamed they again returned to their allegiance and Baber regained his Jasomirgott from his favourite oath, "So help me God!") was kingdom. Once again, in 1510, after the death of Shaibani, he made count palatine of the Rhine in 1140, and became margrave endeavoured to obtain possession of his native country. He of Austria on Leopold's death in 1141. Having married Gertrude, received considerable aid from Shah Ismael of Persia, and in the widow of Henry the Proud, he was invested in 1143 with the 1511 made a triumphal entry into Samarkand. But in 1514 he duchy of Bavaria, and resigned his office as count palatine. In was utterly defeated by the Uzbegs and with difficulty reached 1147 he went on crusade, and after his return renounced Bavaria Kabul. He seems now to have resigned all hopes of recovering at the instance of the new king Frederick I. As compensation Ferghana, and as he at the same time dreaded an invasion of for this, Austria, the capital of which had been transferred to the Uzbegs from the west, his attention was more and more Vienna in 1146, was erected into a duchy. The second duke was drawn towards India. Several preliminary incursions had been Henry's son Leopold I., who succeeded him in 1177 and took already made, when in 1521 an opportunity presented itself for part in the crusades of 1182 and 1190. In Palestine he quarrelled a more extended expedition. Ibrahim, emperor of Delhi, had with Richard I., king of England, captured him on his home-made himself detested, even by his Afghan nobles, several of ward journey and handed him over to the emperor Henry VI. whom called upon Baber for assistance. He at once assembled Leopold increased the territories of the Babenbergs by acquiring his forces, 12,000 strong, with some pieces of artillery and Styria in 1192 under the will of his kinsman Duke Ottakar IV. marched into India. Ibrahim, with 100,000 soldiers and numerHe died in 1194, and Austria fell to one son, Frederick, and ous elephants, advanced against him. The great battle was Styria to another, Leopold; but on Frederick's death in 1198 fought at Panipat on the 21st of April 1526, when Ibrahim they were again united by Duke Leopold II., surnamed "the was slain and his army routed. Baber at once took possession Glorious." The new duke fought against the infidel in Spain, of Agra. A still more formidable enemy awaited him; the Egypt and Palestine, but is more celebrated as a lawgiver, a Rana Sanga of Mewar collected the enormous force of 210,000 patron of letters and a founder of towns. Under him Vienna men, with which he moved against the invaders. On all sides became the centre of culture in Germany and the great school there was danger and revolt, even Baber's own soldiers, worn of Minnesingers (q.v.). His later years were spent in strife out with the heat of this new climate, longed for Kabul. By with his son Frederick, and he died in 1230 at San Germano, vigorous measures and inspiriting speeches he restored their whither he had gone to arrange the peace between the emperor courage, though his own heart was nearly failing him, and in his Frederick II. and Pope Gregory IX. His son Frederick II. distress he abjured the use of wine, to which he had been addicted. followed as duke, and earned the name of "Quarrelsome" by At Kanwaha, on the 10th of March 1527, he won a great victory constant struggles with the kings of Hungary and Bohemia and made himself absolute master of northern India. and with the emperor. He deprived his mother and sisters remaining years of his life he spent in arranging the affairs and of their possessions, was hated by his subjects on account of his revenues of his new empire and in improving his capital, Agra. oppressions, and in 1236 was placed under the imperial ban and He died on the 26th of December 1530 in his forty-eighth year. driven from Austria. Restored when the emperor was excom- Baber was above the middle height, of great strength and an admunicated, he treated in vain with Frederick for the erection of mirable archer and swordsman. His mind was as well cultivated Austria into a kingdom. He was killed in battle in 1246, when as his bodily powers; he wrote well, and his observations are the male line of the Babenbergs became extinct. The city of generally acute and accurate; he was brave, kindly and generous. Bamberg grew up around the ancestral castle of the family.

See G. Juritsch, Geschichte der Babenberger und ihrer Länder (Innsbruck, 1894); M. Schmitz, Oesterreichs Scheyern-Wittelsbacher oder die Dynastie der Babenberger (Munich, 1880).

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Full materials for his life are found in his Memoirs, written by himself (translated into English by Leyden and Erskine (London. 1826); abridged in Caldecott, Life of Baber (London, 1844). See also Lane-Poole, Baber (Rulers of India Series), 1899.

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