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The time has at length arrived when we may offer our congratulations to
the Royal Commissioners on being released from the onerous duty to which
they devoted the past two years and a half. If the result be at all commen-
surate with the duration of their labours, we may expect to find the forth.
coming report a monument of wisdom, research, and multifarious informa-
tion; and we trust this reasonable expectation will not be disappointed.
It is, however, quite possible that another postponement may ensue; at
least, Mr Gladstone's reply, which we give elsewhere, does not preclude

the possibility of such a result. But then the same reply may mean any-

thing or nothing, and we might challenge even the parliamentary annals to

produce a more complete instance of the marvellous power which some

statesmen possess of saying nothing in language which leaves on the

audience the impression that they have said a great deal. We trust the

Civil Service Commissioners will treasure up this and similar specimens for

use at that perhaps not distant day when budding statesmen and diplo-

matists will be required to obtain certificates of competency, showing them

to be masters of that use of language which serves to conceal the thoughts.

Speculation as to the recommendations of the Royal Commissioners would

be now premature; but we trust we shall be able to give in our next issue

some extracts from their Report, as well as comments upon its contents

generally.

utility which such examinations should possess. The fact is, the subjects
laid down in this programme and more especially the works prescribed for
study are limited and objectionable in many respects. This was more es-
pecially the case before the improved lesson books were introduced. At least
one-half the works which the teacher was obliged to read possessed in them
selves no special merit; and being the same from year to year, the examiners
were obliged to ransack every footnote and scrutinize each petty detail in
order to avoid repeating themselves from time to time. It thus was fre-
quently the case that teachers who had a very good general knowledge of
the text books on grammar, geography, lessons, &c., failed to make the
per-centage necessary to secure promotion; and neither the beaten nor the
successful candidates could always say that the matters in which they
failed or passed were such that the knowledge of them was a substantial
benefit. So too with the mathematical portion of the examination. The
works prescribed for study in this branch are of such a nature that a
teacher whose course of mathematical reading is entirely confined to them
finds himself in a strange region when he takes up a modern work on these
subjects or attempts to answer a paper in mathematics or physics when
given by any collegiate or other examining body. This is especially the
case with physics, trigonometry, algebra. and the analytical portion gener-
ally. In fact such difficulty was necessarily experienced by the examiners
in framing suitable questions on these subjects that they have of late years
frequently gone beyond the prescribed limits, a course which, however
unavoidable, is obviously unjust. So too in literature. Inspectors have
often complained of the deficiency of the teachers in even a limited know-
ledge of the best authors and in a taste for their study; but it could
scarcely be otherwise when we take into account the works to whose
perusal their means, their localities, and the requirements of their pro-
gramme of study confined them. Having thus briefly indicated what is
objectionable in the present system, we turn to the consideration of the
means by which its defects might be remedied. . And here we need not
have recourse to speculation or theory. The example of all the examining
bodies in the kingdom, whether collegiate, civil service, or otherwise,
affords us a sure guide. In the first place, all candidates for the office of
will be afterwards required to teach, and a minimum scale of proficiency
teacher should undergo an examination in the essential subjects which they
should be laid down in the elementary portions of literature and mathe-
matics, corresponding to the matriculation course in a university. Any

candidate failing to answer satisfactorily according to this scale should be
precluded from entering upon the duties of teacher. Those who succeed
in passing this preliminary examination should receive a certificate which
would show their competency to undertake the charge of a school. It

proportion which the teacher's income should bear to his position in the
should then be open to any teacher who chooses to study and who dis-
scale of classification, our object being to point out certain deficiencies in charges his professional duties in a satisfactory manner to attend further
the present mode of examination of teachers followed by the Commissioners examinations and attain, if he is able, a higher standard of classification.
of National Education in Ireland, and to indicate some reforms which in
opinion would lead to improvement.

Any one acquainted with the opinions and feelings of the Irish National

teachers must be aware that, as a rule, they look upon the labour of pre-

So far the plan proposed is in its main features the same as that now
pursued by the Commissioners, save that for many reasons inspectors
cannot at present adhere rigidly to such a standard as would exclude in-
competent teachers. But in the further examinations we think a change

enable him to put together combinations equal to the multiform appearance much larger than his own. His imagination, guided by his instructor, wi of nature. There may be no mountain worthy of the name in his view but the hill side on which, perhaps, his father's cattle graze, and to whos top he sometimes climbs, will give him from a comparison of the number times higher, some idea of a loftier peak, where cattle and houses are le below; and then by further expansion to the Alp with its head in etern snow, the forest on its central parts, and the fertile valleys at its bas The stream which flows through the adjoining fields with its turning shoals, and pools, helps him to imagine the majestic flow of a mighty rive carrying ships, with the productions of many lands, on its bosom. On hot summer's day he is led to realize the greater warmth of tropical land with their more luxurious vegetation, and numerous animal life. On winter's day the frozen cheerless zone of ice, its dearth of life, vegetabi and animal. We shall finish this subject of comparison by a quotatio from the Minutes of Council, 1847.

having the effect of assimilating them to the collegiate examinations of matri- | ideas must be extended to take in the features of tracts of country ver culated students would be, if not absolutely necessary, at least highly advantageous. Each candidate should be at liberty to select either a literary or mathematical curriculum (according to a programme fixed by the proper authorities) or both. In universities, as most of our readers are aware, it is customary to leave it optional with the candidates whether they shall be examined in classics, mathematics or logics when they wish to take out their degrees. By this means a higher standard can be attained in each, and a very rigorous test can be applied without injustice before a student receives the university diploma which marks his mental capabilities and powers of application. These benefits would likewise ensue if a double course were laid down for the National teachers, and a much more extended course of reading and a better class of authors could be prescribed for them than at present. The works of the best writers both in literature and in science would thus become familiar to teachers; and besides the stimulus to intellectual advancement which this would afford, the candidates for promotion would feel their task really a labour of love. We all know with what zest a student cultivates the knowledge of those subjects which are congenial to his tastes, and to how severe a test he will willingly submit when they are the basis of examination. Nor would there be any danger under such a system of teachers becoming one sided in their intellectual proclivities. A proper arrangement of the preliminary examinations would prevent this, and the distinction which proficiency in both branches would bring would operate among teachers, as it does among university students, as an inducement to many to attempt both courses of examination. We believe that some plan of this nature is a necessity of the future; and the introduction of so many new works of late years into the Commissioners' list is merely a precursor of the coming changes. Improvements of this nature should be hailed by all who desire the good of education in this country. In spite of all asseverations to the contrary of blockheads, whether learned or unlearned, whether in a high position or in a low position, we fearlessly assert that any educational system which does not regard as a cardinal point the encouragement of teachers in the pursuit of knowledge is radically defective, and carries within it the seeds of its own decay.

PRIZE ESSAY

* ON TEACHING GEOGRAPHY (ELEMENTARY);
By MR. THOMAS CUMMINGS, Manorhamilton.

PREFACE.

The writer takes the "first lesson" on the map, as the model in which the earlier instruction is to be given, the lesson on England for the more advanced stage. He has found considerable difference among authorities as to the spelling of foreign names.

He had intended to take up Ireland and Scotland in the same manner as England, but found that moderate space would not permit.

GEOGRAPHY.

FAUGH-A-BALLAGH.

The first instruction in geography is to make the pupil acquainted with its technical terms; such as, sea, river, mountain, lake, city, &c. This may be best done by directing attention to the topography of the locality where the pupil resides. The neighbouring mountain which he climbs, the river he fishes and bathes in, the place he or his relatives occasionally go for sea bathing these can be all made to furnish him with ideas, afterwards to be expanded, of the terms of geographical science. Terms learned in this way are not merely words ;"they bring ideas before the mind.

The cardinal points are pointed out during recreation at mid-day, as taught in the lesson-books, and fixed on the memory by requiring the direction of fields, villages, or other objects of interest, to be given--as lying north, south, east, or west of the schoolhouse. The map, placed on north end of the school room, will show the real position of all places on its surface, corresponding to the directions learned outside. The climate of our own sountry in its various elements, of heat and cold, calm and storm, rain and drought, with the succession of the seasons; the height of the sun in summer and winter, and the corresponding heat or cold: all these may be passed in review and be taken advantage of in treating of similar or dissimilar phenomena.

"The knowledge of geography which is best adapted to elementa schools, most likely to be understood by children, to interest them, t remain with them, to form the subject of future reflection, become a topi of continual interest, and a means of perpetuation of that process of educ tion which is but commenced in childhood; consists in the knowledge matters concerning other parts of the world which are familiar to ti observation of the child in this part of the world." The first or earliest instruction on the map, after making the pup acquainted with the difference between land and water, includes the nam of countries associated with their productions, animals, and so forth Lapland with the reindeer, Africa with the lion, America with cotto Jamaica with coffee, the Nile with the story of Moses. Exact position not at this time the object of study; yet, we may begin to show th cardinal points the sides of the countries thus associated point t Pictorial illustrations. which can be obtained cheaply from the Nation Board, will lend additional interest: such as pictures of the snowy peal and glaciers of Switzerland, the prairies of America, the Arab and camel, &c.

Second stage.-We use the map of the world from the commencemen for we do not agree with those theorists who lead children to the schoo room maps through a long series of topographical expansions, commenci with the locality we reside in. We agree with the late Mr. Robinson thinking, that the time so employed could be more usefully spent that such a system requires a more painstaking a course, and a mo learning of foreign countries, and the more distant parts of our own; an expensive machinery than is readily procurable. What we are in favo of is the use of the map of the world from the first lesson, and while learnin to associate, as already shown, important and interesting facts with son of the continents and larger countries on its surface, the eye is graduall taking in the outlines and proportions of its divisions, day by day.

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In order to learn intelligently, the pupil must conceive correctly, what map is. The usual way described in geographies, is to make a picture the school-room; then a ground-plan of it, or map; explaining that th map is taken from a bird's-eye view, that is from a point of observation some distance above it. It may be remarked, that, when ascending neighbouring hill, or looking from the top of any eminence, the fiel appear to expand out below them, the hedges appearing like dark bounda lines; if an ascent still higher is made larger tracts become visible, t their place: the rivers are seen to roll on to the sea, the hills appear brig fences gradually disappear, and the larger features of the landscape ta on top and shaded at the sides, as depicted on the maps, the outlines of coast appear in the distance, with a waste line of beach a view becomes, and neighbouring islands, and tracings of distant countrie shingle bounding it. The further we yet ascend the smaller the who come into sight. The views from the various heights, explains what son times puzzles a chill, the different sizes of Ireland on one map, and then another. The imagination may thus at length be led to see the earth at great distance, with its tracery of continents, islands, mountains, volcanoe and the regions of white everlasting snow, around its poles. Familiar proofs may now be given of the earth's rotundity. Next t land on its surface as consisting of continents, their sizes as comparel o with the other, their subdivisions in order, and their natural feature length of coast line, mountains, rivers, plains, deserts, lakes. Of the ocean in regard to seas, gulfs, bays, &c. Of heat and cold over the earth, d and night, winds, currents, tides; productions; animal life; occupations inhabitants, character, habits. Some of these subjects will require a sep rate lesson, as is provided in the sequel, such as that on temperature, enable the pupil to grasp the general principles on which the distributi of heat depends: afterwards the general laws are applied in the particul instance under consideration, with the modifying circumstances.

The teacher tries to make the map suggest nature itself; he relieves t dryness of names, dimensions, and relative position, with a largely descri tive element; and in every stage compares the unseen with the seen.

If the pupil leaves school at this stage he will, if attentive, have acquir so much general information on geography, as to enable him to read a new paper with interest, to be entertained with books of travel, and to unde stand and sympathise, with Christian efforts of missionaries in foreig His lands.

Comparison. The pupil's neighbourhood furnishes him with the chief elements from which landscapes are formed throughout the world.

Position.--The knowledge of relative position, although secondary to The writer of this essay obtained Mr Chamney's first prize, awarded for the best knowledge of the countries themselves, occupies a portion of each lesson paper on the Teaching of Elementary Geography. the second stage, and adds exactness to the mental image of the map. T

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directions to sail from Ireland to other countries; how countries lie towards each other, and how towns are situated in this way the mind will not be marthened by names alone. The globe will give more correct and extended knowledge of the surface of the earth. The position of a globe can be more varied than that of a map; thus giving a new aspect to the land and water. It may be turned upside down, to show the vast ocean surface of our planct, the great difference in the proportion of land in the northern and southern hemispheres, the ends of the continents projecting into the southern waters and ending in mountain ranges abruptly. Latitude and Longitude. The nature of these can be made simple by a dark ball. Put a chalk mark on it. Ask the pupil to tell the position of the mark so as to be understood. Draw half circles through the north and south points of the ball numbering them 1, 2, 3, &c., causing one of them -all being at equal distances apart-to pass through the mark. Let the teacher next draw circles round the ball at right angles to the first one, and one round the middle, (Equator,) numbering them, and passing one through the white mark again. The intersection of circles numbering certain figures mark the position of the chalk. The whole boundary line of the earth is divided into 360 parts, or degrees, through each of which and its subdivisions a line is, or may be drawn; and hence all places may be determined on its surface.

A lesson may be given on the zones and their boundaries, and how these are determined, if not already anticipated, in the lesson on temperature. The newspaper, as it gives the record of events occurring during the passing week or day, will give the teacher illustrations most varied and life-like. It tells of discoveries in Africa, Australia, and North America; of new sea routes between distant countries such as the new Suez route to India opened on last Wednesday, 17th November of earthquakes, and of all the other information, from our own or other climes, which go to make up a large portion of the daily talk of the adult population. The lists of shipping, alone, will give all the seaports in the world with their imports and exports. Newspapers are the best possible public instruc

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tors."-(Lord Brougham). Last stage. The exact boundaries of each country now occupies separate attention; its latitude and longitude; its size as compared with the United Kingdom, or with Ireland. The writer has found the slates sold to national schools with the outlines of countries etched on them, to give most useful employment to learners in geography. The etchings are gone over with a slate pencil, and the names of the divisions, towns, &c., filled in. The river systems form most interesting lessons, taken in connection with the mountains they rise in, the plains they flow through, the towns on their banks, their sites and appearances, exports.

Inhabitants. This subject rather belongs to history. Although moral causes have chiefly to do with the formation of character, yet it cannot be denied that race and material circumstances have some place in its formation Switzerland and Scotland, with their mountain fastnesses, inspiring thoughts of freedom; the great fertile plains are associated with ease and perhaps dulness. England, possessed of its great coal and iron fields, shows us a manufacturing eminence unrivalled; Ireland deficient in these, turns to agriculture and dairy management, and finds a ready market in the great centres of English trade.

Historical Geography.-A noticeable deficiency in the school publications of our national board, is the want of an historical hand-book. This deficiency may, to some extent, be supplied through the geographical lesson. The teaching of history can, at the same time, be but incidental, not systematic. Salient points of interest are remarked, in passing, when speaking of places. Derry and Limerick, in reference to the seiges they sustained, and the heroic defences made. Carlisle, where Edward I. died, when invading Scotland for the last time. Runnymede, near London, where King John signed Magna Charta. Thus geography is used in a casual way--the way it will afterwards be used when the pupil becomes a man.

GEOGRAPHY.

First Lesson.-The picture before you is a map of the whole world. The reason it is in two parts is: the earth is round and we can see but one half of a round ball at a time. This half, (pointing to the map,) is a drawing of one view of the round world, then we turn it, as it were, to see the other half, and draw it out too.

The half to the right is called the Eastern Hemisphere, the other the Western Hemisphere. This map shows us how the land and water are spread over the surface of the globe, and the shapes they are of. The coloured parts are the land and the parts without colour the water. It is quite evident that much more of the surface of the globe is covered with water than with land. The printed words across the map are the names by which different parts of the land and water are known. The names in the largest print are those of the continents and oceans. Europe, Asia, Africa, and America are the continents. The first three are together and are called the Old World; America is by itself and is called the new world; called new, because not much known till some years ago. In one of the islands of Europe we live. Europe is the smallest of the Continents, but it contains the greatest nations in the world--nations which hold in subjection the people of many distant lands. In this continent live the British, French, Russian, and other mighty nations you may have

heard of.

Asia is joined to Europe and is the largest of the continents. It is the place where Adam and Eve lived, where Noah was saved in the flood, and where Abraham lived and died. On its right hand side is the oldest nation in the world, China, where we get tea; and on its left hand side lived the Jews in a small country, around their sacred city Jerusalem,

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Africa, the continent next to Europe as you travel downwards, is very little known to us from the great heat of the sun there, and the great extent of it away from the reach of ships. In Africa live the Blacks, with the flat noses and thick lips, you sometimes see. Over a large part of it rain never falls. It is there covered with sand and can only be traversed by the camel. It is still so little known that several travellers have gone there from these cuntries to find out what sort of a place the middle of it is, and what sort of people inhabit it.

America was found out by the great Christopher Columbus nearly 400 years ago. It is the place where most people go who leave Ireland. There are few people in this country who have not relatives there. America, for its size, has not many people. Good land may be had in many parts for almost nothing. America supplies Europe with many things: cotton, Indian corn, and other products Geographical Terms.-Continents are the largest divisions of land, and contain several countries. They are Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. Islands are lands surrounded by water; as Ireland, Newfoundland, Ceylon. Peninsulas are lands almost surrounded by water; as the Mullet in Mayo, Denmark, South America.

Isthmuses are necks of land joining peninsulas to mainlands; as Corinth, Suez, Darien.

Capes are points of land, generally the ends of countries or islands, stretching into the sea; Mizen Head, Land's End, Cape of Good Hope. Shore or Coast is land bordering on the sea, often waste sand and rocks. Mountains are portions of land suddenly rising above the level country. If not much elevated they are called hills. Mountains are generally found together in ranges for many miles; as the Wicklow mountains, the Alps, the Andes. Volcanoes are mountains which throw out smoke, flames, and melted matter from the interior of the earth, through an opening at top. Plains are portions of countries flat, or nearly so; as the Curragh of Kildare, the Steppes of Russia, the Prairies of America. Valleys are lands lying between mountains or hills; as Glendalough in Wicklow.

Deserts are barren plains or wastes generally covered with sand; as the Sahara in Africa.

Oases are fertile spots in a desert; as Fezzan. Prominent Facts.-Three-fourths of the land on the surface of the earth are in the northern hemisphere, and one-fourth in the southern. The great continents taper towards the south, and are wide on the north. Three-fifths of the Old World consists of high table lands. The New World is for the most part covered by low-lying plains and valleys.

It may be said that the chains of mountains in the Old World extend from east to west, with short slope to south, and long slope to north. In the New World great chains run generally north and south, with short slope to west, and long to east.

Mountains are not so high in appearance as they are tabulated. Their height is given from the level of the sea, thereby including the elevated levels from which they in almost all cases rise.

Highest mountain in the world, Mount Everest, five miles high nearly. Greatest depth of the ocean, about nine miles.

WATER.

Oceans are the largest divisions of water; as the Pacific, Atlantic. Seas are smaller than oceans, but still large, and are more confined by land; as the Irish Sea, the Black Sea.

NOTE.-A cluster of islands in a sea or ocean is often called an archipelago. Lakes are portions of water, generally fresh, entirely stirrounded by land; as Lough Neagh, Lake Superior. Some lakes are salt and generally take the name of sea.

Straits are narrow passages of water which join other bodies of water together; as the Straits of Dover, connecting the German Ocean with the British Channel.

If a strait is wide it is called a chapel.

Rivers are waters flowing over the land, and forming its natural drainage; as the Shannon, the Liffey

Where a river begins is called its source; where it ends its mouth; its course is its entire length A river flowing into another is called a tributary; where they meet their confluence; the channel, the hollow formed in the earth by the rush of its waters.

Basin, extent of country drained by a river.
Watershed high land or ridge separating two basins.

Interesting Facts.The terms ocean and sea are used in reference to the whole body of water on the earth's surface. The bed of the ocean consists of mountains, valleys, and vast plains. In many places it is so deep it cannot be sounded.

12,000 miles wide. The Pacific (peaceful) is the largest ocean. It is 9,000 miles long, and

The Atlantic (Mount Atlas) is the same length as the Pacific, but only one-third of its width.

The Indian Ocean lies about India. It is 6,000 miles each way.
The Arctic is said to extend to the North Pole, and the Antarctic to

the South Pole. Not much is known of their dimensions.
(The pupil is directed to the observation of the river, hill, or mountain,
lake, valley, in his locality, in the manner laid down in the introduction.)
ARTIFICIAL DIVISIONS(This lesson may be omitted at present.)
The Equator is a circle round the middle of the earth, half way between
poles. All places on the world are north of this circle, south of it, or
Latitude is distance north or south from the Equator. There are

the

on it.

90° from the Equator to the poles. No place can have more than 90° of latitude. A degree of 69 miles.

Meridians are lines drawn through any place from pole to pole, (meridian is a word meaning mid-day). The meridian of any place intersecting the line showing its latitude marks the position of that place.

One meridian must be fixed on, to measure from. That chosen by us is the meridian of London (Greenwich).

NOTE--An idea of longitude may be obtained from an umbrella when opened out the widest part of the umbrella representing the middle of the earth, or the place of the Equator, the whalebone ribs the lines of longitude.

As the earth turns round towards the east, places in that direction have the sun over their heads sooner than we: that is, they have sunrise and mid-day earlier. 15 degrees of longitude make a difference of one hour in

time. In our latitude ten miles make a difference of one minute.

The sun is overhead to all countries of the world as far as 23 degrees north, and to the same distance south, from the equator. Circles through these points are called tropics, (Cancer north, Capricorn south); and circles at same distance from the poles are called polar circles. These are the four great circles of latitude.

Peninsulas-Spain and Portugal, (called the Iberian Peninsula), Italy, Turkey and Greece, Norway and Sweden, (called the Scandinavian Peninsula), Denmark. Islands-In the Atlantic the British Isles, in the Arctic Ocean Switzbergen and Nova Zembla; in the Baltic, Zealand, Funen, Gottland, and Aland Isles; in the Mediterranean, Balearic Islands, Corsica (remarkable as the birth place of Napoleon), Sardinia, Sicily, (formerly called the Granary" of Europe).)

Mountains Alps, (highest point, Mount Blanc, 15,700 feet high ; Appennines in Italy; Balkan in Turkey; Dovrefield in Scandanavia ; C'aucasus, (highest point, Mount Elburz).

NOTE-A line from the Elbe to the Dniester divides the mountain regions of Europe from the great plain to the north-east. Capes-North Cape, Nordkin (most northerly point of Europe), Nase, south of Norway, Land's End, west of England, Finisterre (end of the earth), Roca, St. Vincent, Tarifa (most southerly point of Europei, Passaro in Sicily, Matapan in Greece.

Rivers-Dvina into the Arctic Ocean; Neva, Dura, Vistula and Oder into the Baltic; Elbe and Rhine into the German Ocean; Seine, Loire, Garonne, Doura and Tagus into the Atlantic, (these all drain the northwest slope). On the south-east slope, Ebro, Rhone, Po, into the MediterThese four circles divide the earth into five zones: one torrid, two tem-ranean; Danube and Dniester into the Black Sea; Don into the Sea of perate, and two frigid. Azov; Volga into the Caspian Sea.

ZONES.

The torrid zone, about 3,200 miles across, reaches from the tropic of Cancer north, to the tropic of Capricorn south. For some part of the year the sun is directly over the inhabitants of every part of this zone; the heat is intense. There is no winter here. The days and nights are nearly equal all the year round.

this zone.

The north temperate zone, 3,000 miles in breadth, extends from the tropic of Cancer to the Arctic Circle. The sun is never directly overhead, and the heat is not so great as in the torrid zone. Nearly all Europe is in The north frigid zone extends from the Arctic circle to the north pole, 1,600 miles. For a great part of the year the sun is hid from view the cold is very great; snow and ice cover land and sea.

The south temperate zone, 3,000 miles across, extends from the tropic of Capricorn to the Antarctic circle, is for the most part similar in climate to the north temperate zone.

The south frigid zone is the remainder of the southern hemisphere. It corresponds in size and climate to the north frigid zone.

TEMPERATURE--(This lesson may also be deferred.)

The equator is round the hottest part of the earth, as the sun is directly over it. The sun being the source of heat, climates become colder as they approach the poles, because the sun's rays do not fall directly outside the torrid zone, but in a slanting direction.

Temperature also depends on the height of a place above the sea level. A mountain three miles high brings us, even at the equator, to the regions of perpetual snow. The snow line gradually lowers till it meets the earth at the poles. In the latitude of Dublin a mountain scarcely a mile-and-ahalf high, would have its summit crowned all the year with snow.

Currents in the ocean and currents in the air affect, to no slight degree, the climates of countries. Thus the hotter sea water of the torrid zone flows in a great current towards the west of Europe, and raises the temperature of these countries, by means of the heated air passing over them, and blowing in the prevailing direction westerly. Ireland is peculiarly favoured by this ocean current called the Gulf Stream.

The

In the torrid zone the east or trade wind blows all the year. eastern sides of continents there are wet, the western dry. A south-west wind prevails in the north temperate zone, and a north-west wind in the south temperate, and consequently the west sides of continents and islands in these zones are wet.

The more equal temperature of the sea makes islands less variable as to heat and cold than large continents.

EUROPE

Area 3 millions of square miles, of the land on the earth's surface. Boundaries.-North by the Arctic Ocean, south by the Mediterranean and Black Seas, east by Caspian Sea, Ural river and Ural mountains. Europe has for its size the longest sea coast, 20,000 miles: much longer in proportion than the other continents. Only in East Russia are there any places more than 500 miles from the sea.

Seas.-White Sea, North Sea, Baltic Sea (very shallow, and as more fresh water enters it by rivers than is taken away by evaporation, it is not so salt as the ocean. In the Gulf of Bothnia the water is often used for domestic purposes. It is for this reason (its freshness) often frozen in the winter), Irish Sea, English Channel, Mediterranean Sea (ten times the size of Great Britain. It receives a current from the Atlantic Ocean. It is salter than the ocean, as the fresh water poured into it by rivers is less than the quantity evaporated. It is a deep sea), Black Sea (sends a current into the Mediterranean, as it receives more fresh water than is evaporated. It is fresher than the ocean, and consequently often frozen in its northern parts during winter.

Gulfs.-Finland, Bothnia, and Riga in the Baltic, Cattegat and Skager Rack, Bay of Biscay, ("Biscay's Sleepless Bay," Lord Byron, in allusion to the great swell of the Atlantic felt in it), Gulf of Genoa, Gulf of Corinth, (the town of Corinth near the gulf gave name to the fruit called currants.)

Straits-Dover (chalk formation underneath), Gibraltar (inlet to the Mediterranean), Bonifacia, Messina, Dardanelles, Constantinople.

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NOTE-The Volga and Danube discharge nearly as much water into the sea as all the other rivers of Europe.

Lakes--The chief lakes of Europe are, near the Baltic, Ladoga, Onega, Wenner, Wetter, Malar. In the south, Geneva (Leman), Constance, Neuchatel in Switzerland; Maggiore (greater), Como, Garda in Italy. Climate - Europe, with the exception of a small portion, lies in the north temperate zone, and enjoys a climate free from the extremes of heat and cold. The western countries are warmer than the eastern, owing to the prevalence of westerly winds blowing from the equatorial regions, and felt in this latitude as coming from the west. There are three climates in Europe. The southern includes Spain, Portugal, South France, Italy. Turkey and Greece; these have a short winter and a long summer. The middle countries have the four seasons distinct. The northern countries, in which the inhabitants have a short summer and a long winter. Productions---South; the sugar cane, cotton, orange, tig, vine, tobacco, rice, wheat, oak, chestnut.

Central; corn-fields and meadows, apples, pears, walnuts, and in some places the vine, oak, beech, fir.

Northern; wheat will not grow higher the middle of Norway, and in the extreme north even the most hardy trees become stunted. Minerals Iron, lead, copper, tin, gold and silver in small quantities, coal (abundantly in Great Britain and Belgium). Population 280,000,000, or one-fourth of the human race. The most populous countries are Belgium and England. Religions--Greek-Latins in the south are chiefly Roman Catholic. Germans in middle and west chiefly Protestants. Slavonians in the east and south-east chiefly Greek church.

NOTE-A portion of the people of Turkey are Mahomedans. The people of Ireland and Scotland are Celtic for the most part.

COUNTRIES AND CAPITAL CITIES OF EUROPE.

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ENGLAND AND WALES.

Danube Manzanares Tagus

Arno Gulf of Egina Bosphorus

Boundaries.--North by Scotland; east by German Ocean; south by the English Channel; west by the Atlantic, St. George's Channel, and Irish Sea.

Coast line 2000 miles. Greatest length from 360 to 420 miles. Greatest bredth 300 to 360 miles.

Capes.-Framborough Head in Yorkshire, Spurn Head north of the Humber, South Foreland in Kent, Beechy Head in Sussex, The Needles in the Isle of Wight, Lizard Point (the most southern point), and Land's End (the most western), both in Cornwall, St. David's Head in Wales.

Islands.--Isle of Man, Anglesea, Wight, Holyhead, Lundy Island, the Channel Islands.

Wight, south of Hampshire, is about half the size of Dublin county. Eyde and Newport are its largest towns. The queen has a favourite residence near Cowes, in the island, called Osborne House.

Anglesea is joined to the main land by two bridges. Holyhead is the port of embarkation to Ireland, and is only an island at high water. The Channel Islands belong to Great Britain through the Norman Conquest, having belonged to William Duke of Normandy. These islands are much frequented by tourists from their mild climate and exemption from several taxes.

Isle of Man, about three-fourths of the size of Dublin county, has some ad mines and fisheries. Chief towns Ramsay, Douglas. It, too, enjoys eculiar privileges.

13. Cambridge-Cambridge, Ely. Cambridge has a great university with thirteen colleges and four halls, famous for the study of mathematics. Ely has a cathedral. Three Counties in the East Plain.

14. Norfolk Norwich, Yarmouth. Norwich has manufactures of woollens and mixed stuffs, introduced by the Flemings in the reign of Henry I. and Elizabeth. Yarmouth is the chief seat of the herring fishery. 15. Suffolk-Ipswich, Lowestoft, the most westerly town of England. Bury St. Edmonds has the remains of a large abbey. 16. Essex-Chelmsford, Colchester.

NOTE. The three last counties are chiefly agricultural.

Seven Counties in the Basin of the Thames.

Mountains.-Pennine Range, Cambrian Range, containing Scaffell, 3,166 feet high (the highest mountain in England), Cambrian Range to the west 17. Middlesex--London, is ten miles long and seven broad, and includes contains Snowdon (the highest mountain in England and Wales). besides the city, Westminster on the west, Marylebone, Finsbury, Tower Lakes.--Windermere, Derwent Water, and Bala Lake in Wales. The Hamlets on the north, Southwark and Lambeth on the south. In its wealth, lakes of England are few and small. Their scenery, being situated among trade, and commerce, it surpasses every city in the world. Among its high hills, is very beautiful. public buildings are the Tower, Westminster Abbey, St. Paul's Cathedral, Rivers-The Ouse, Thames, Severn, Mersey, Dee. The largest is the New Houses of Parliament, Royal Exchange. To the south-east a few Severn. miles is Sydenham, with its Crystal Palace. Along the Thames westwards, Climate. The climate is moist, paticularly on the west, but healthy. It Chelsea with its hospital; Hampton Court, the residence, at one time, of t! is warmer west and south than east. Prevailing winds are west and south- Cardinal Wolsey; Chertsey, where Casar crossed; and Runnymede, where west. East and north-east winds blow for some time in spring-these Magna Charta was signed. winds are cold and dry. It is warmer than the Continent of Europe in the 18. Hertford-Hertford, St. Albans, where two battles were fought same latitude. during the "Wars of the Roses."

Soil and Productions.--The soil is generally fertile. The grain crops are wheat in the east and south-east, barley in the centre, and oats in the north. Hops are grown in Kent.

Minerals.-Coal, iron, copper, lead and tin. England owes to the abunlance of these minerals, more especially coal and iron, the position she holds as the richest country in the world Coal abounds in the northern Counties, Staffordshire and Wales. Copper and tin are found chiefly in Cornwall and Devon.

Manufactures.-Cotton, woolen, silk, metal, and earthenware manufactures. 40,000 ships and 300,000 sailors are employed in the commerce of England, besides foreign vessels.

Government.-A limited monarchy consisting of king or queen, lords and commons. The House of Commons consists of 658 members for the United Kingdom, elected by the people. The House of Commons may be said to govern the kingdom-it alone has control of the finances.

People.-The people of England are chiefly descendants of Saxons, mixed with Danes and Normans. The Welsh are descended from the original

inhabitants.

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1. Northumberland-In this county are the remains of an ancient Roman wall, partly built by Agricola A.D. 80. Chief towns--Newcastle, a seaport on the Tyne; extensive coal mines near. There is a double bridge over the Tyne, the upper arches of which are used for railway purposes. BerwickTwelve miles from Berwick is Flodden Field, where the Scots, under James IV., were defeated in 1513.

2. Durham-Durham the chief town, has a fine cathedral and university.
The Saxon monk, "The venerable Bede," was buried in this cathedral.
3. York-York is divided into three districts called Ridings. Chief
tans-York, an ancient city, once the residence of the Roman Emperors.
The cathedral is the finest sample of Gothic architecture in the kingdom.
West of York is Marston Moor where, in 1644, Charles I. was defeated by
Cromwell. Sheffield, famous for cutlery and metalic manufacture. Leeds,
the seat of the woollen manufactures. Hull, which ranks as a seaport next
to London and Liverpool. Its trade is chiefly with the North Sea and
Baltic ports. Scarborough, south-west of which is Kirkdale Cave, where
bones of hyenas, tigers, rhinoceroses, &c., are found.

4. Derby-Derby, Chesterfield, Matlock, Buxton. Prince Charles ad
vanced to Derby in 1745, before he was defeated at Culloden.

3. Stafford-Stafford, Lichfield, Burton-on-Trent, Newcastle-under-
Lyme. Lichfield was the birth place of Dr. Johnson, born in 1709. Burton
has large breweries--Part of Staffordshire is called
6. Leicester-Leicester, Loughborough
Nottingham-Nottingham, Newark.

66 The Potteries."

NOTE.-The last five counties are in the Humber basin.

Six Counties in the Basin of the Wash.

8. Lincoln-Lincoln, Boston. Grantham. Lincoln was a Roman town at first, afterwards capital of Mercia, one of the Saxon Heptarchy. It is noted for a fine cathedral. Near Grantham Isaac Newton was born. 9. Rutland--Oakham.

10. Northampton-Northampton, Peterborough. Twelve miles from Northampton, at Naseby, Cromwell defeated the army of Charles I. in 1645. Near Northampton was Fotheringay Castle, where Mary Queen of Scots was imprisoned, and beheaded in 1587.

11. Bedford-Bedford, Dunstable.

12. Huntingdon Huntingdon, the birth place of Oliver Cromwell.

19. Buckingham-Buckingham, Eaton, famous for its great public school, founded by Henry VI.

20. Oxford-Oxford, remarkable for its university founded by Alfred the Great. It is the most richly endowed in the world. It has nineteen colleges and five halls it possesses, too, the large Bodleian Library, and a fine museum.

21. Berkshire-Reading, Windsor, with its noble castle, the favourite residence of the English sovereigns.

22. Surrey-Guilford, Epsom, noted for its races; Croydon, which gave its name to a new vehicle.

23. Kent-Canterbury, the seat of the Primacy of England; Thomas-aBecket was murdered here in 1170. Dover and Folkstone the chief route to France-distance from Dover to Calais 21 miles.

Six Counties on the English Channel.

24. Sussex-Lewes, Hastings, near which the Saxons, under Harold, were defeated by William I.; Brighton, a favourite watering place.

25. Hampshire -Winchester, once the capital of England, under the Saxon rule. King Alfred was buried here. Southampton the principal mail steam-packet station of England. The great military hospital, Netley, is near Southampton. Portsmouth, the principal naval station of Britain. In Hampshire is Aldershot, the military camp. 26. Wiltshire-Salisbury, near which is Stonehenge, the great temple of

the Druids.

27. Dorsetshire---Dorchester, Poole, Weymouth.

28. Devon-Exeter on the Exe, an ancient city with a magnificent cathedral. Plymouth, including Devonport, is the second naval station. The famous breakwater is at the mouth of the sound, and is near a mile long. The Edystone lighthouse is to the south.

29. Cornwall--Bodmin, Truro, Falmouth.

NOTE.-These six counties are chiefly agricultural. Cornwall gives the title Duke of Cornwall to the eldest son of the King of England. The first Duke of Cornwall was the Black Prince, son of Edward III.

Seven Counties in the Basin of the Severn.

30. Somersetshire Bath, famous for its medicinal and hot springs. Bridgewater, near which town, at Sedgemoor, the Duke of Monmouth was defeated in 1685. Near the mouth of the river Tone, in this county, is Athelney, where Alfred concealed himself from the Danes in 878.

31. Gloucester-Gloucester, fifteen miles from Gloucester is Berkeley Castle, where Edward II. was murdered in 1327.

"Hark! what shrieks from Berkeley towers do ring;
Shrieks of an agonizing king."

Bristol at one time ranked next to London. Sabastion Cabot, who dis-
covered Newfoundland in 1492, was a native of Bristol. Cheltenham

resorted to for its mineral waters.

32. Warwickshire Warwick, containing the most perfect feudal castle

in England. Coventry, noted for the manufacture of Ribbons. Birmingham,

for metalic manufactures.

33. Worcestershire Worcester famous for porcelain. Charles II. was defeated here by Comwell, in 1651. Kidderminster, noted for carpets. 34. Shropshire--Shrewsberry where Hotspur was defeated and slain in

1403.

35. Herefordshire-Hereford, Leominster.
36. Monmouth-Monmouth, Chepstow.

Four Counties on the Irish Sea.

37. Cheshire Chester which is enclosed by thick old walls.
38. Lancashire---Lancaster famous for its castle. Liverpool the greatest

seaport in the empire next to London, celebrated for its extensive docks
and great American trade. Manchester the second city in the kingdom
for population, and the centre of the cotton trade.
39. Westmoreland-Appleby, Kendal.

40. Cumberland-Carlisle, with castle and eathedral,

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