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Acknowledgments xi     PART ONE: Language and Archaeology 1      Chapter One: The Promise and Politics of the Mother Tongue 3  Ancestors 3  Linguists and Chauvinists 6  The Lure of the Mother Tongue 11  A New Solution for an Old Problem 15  Language Extinction and Thought 19      Chapter Two: How to Reconstruct a Dead Language 21  Language Change and Time 22  Phonology: How to Reconstruct a Dead Sound 24  The Lexicon: How to Reconstruct Dead Meanings 32  Syntax and Morphology: The Shape of a Dead Language 36  Conclusion: Raising a Language from the Dead 38      Chapter Three: Language and Time 1: The Last Speakers of Proto-Indo-European 39  The Size of the Chronological Window: How Long Do Languages Last? 39  The Terminal Date for Proto-Indo-European: The Mother Becomes Her Daughters 42  The Oldest and Strangest Daughter (or Cousin?): Anatolian 43  The Next Oldest Inscriptions: Greek and Old Indic 48  Counting the Relatives: How Many in 1500 BCE? 50      Chapter Four: Language and Time 2: Wool, Wheels, and Proto-Indo-European 59  The Wool Vocabulary 59  The Wheel Vocabulary 63  When Was the Wheel Invented 65  The Signifi cance of the Wheel 72  Wagons and the Anatolian Homeland Hypothesis 75  The Birth and Death of Proto-Indo-European 81      Chapter Five: Language and Place: The Location of the Proto-Indo-Europe an Homeland 83  Problems with the Concept of "the Homeland" 83  Finding the Homeland: Ecology and Environment 89  Finding the Homeland: The Economic and Social Setting 91  Finding the Homeland: Uralic and Caucasian Connections 93  The Location of the Proto-Indo-European Homeland 98      Chapter Six: The Archaeology of Language 102  Persistent Frontiers 104  Migration as a Cause of Persistent Material-Culture Frontiers 108  Ecological Frontiers: Different Ways of Making a Living 114  Small-scale Migrations, Elite Recruitment, and Language Shift 117      PART TWO: The Opening of the Eurasian Steppes 121      Chapter Seven: How to Reconstruct a Dead Culture 123  The Three Ages in the Pontic-Caspian Steppes 125  Dating and the Radiocarbon Revolution 126  What Did They Eat? 128  Archaeological Cultures and Living Cultures 130  The Big Questions Ahead 132      Chapter Eight: First Farmers and Herders: The Pontic-Caspian Neolithic 134  Domesticated Animals and Pontic-Caspian Ecol ogy 135  The First Farmer-Forager Frontier in the Pontic- Caspian Region 138  Farmer Meets Forager: The Bug-Dniester Culture 147  Beyond the Frontier: Pontic-Caspian Foragers before Cattle Arrived 154  The Gods Give Cattle 158      Chapter Nine: Cows, Copper, and Chiefs 160  The Early Copper Age in Old Europe 162  The Cucuteni-Tripolye Culture 164  The Dnieper-Donets II Culture 174  The Khvalynsk Culture on the Volga 182  Nalchik and North Caucasian Cultures 186  The Lower Don and North Caspian Steppes 188  The Forest Frontier: The Samara Culture 189  Cows, Social Power, and the Emergence of Tribes 190      Chapter Ten: The Domestication of the Horse and the Origins of Riding: The Tale of the Teeth 193  Where Were Horses First Domesticated? 196  Why Were Horses Domesticated? 200  What Is a Domesticated Horse? 201  Bit Wear and Horse back Riding 206  Indo-European Migrations and Bit Wear at Dereivka 213  Botai and Eneolithic Horseback Riding 216  The Origin of Horse back Riding 221  The Economic and Military Effects of Horseback Riding 222      Chapter Eleven: The End of Old Europe and the Rise of the Steppe 225  Warfare and Alliance: The Cucuteni-Tripolye Culture and the Steppes 230  The Sredni Stog Culture: Horses and Rituals from the East 239  Migrations into the Danube Valley: The Suvorovo-Novodanilovka Complex 249  Warfare, Climate Change, and Language Shift in the Lower Danube Valley 258  After the Collapse 260      Chapter Twelve: Seeds of Change on the Steppe Borders: Maikop Chiefs and Tripolye Towns 263  The Five Cultures of the Final Eneolithic in the Steppes 265  Crisis and Change on the Tripolye Frontier: Towns Bigger Than Cities 277  The First Cities and Their Connection to the Steppes 282  The North Caucasus Piedmont: Eneolithic Farmers before Maikop 285  The Maikop Culture 287  Maikop-Novosvobodnaya in the Steppes: Contacts with the North 295  Proto-Indo-European as a Regional Language in a Changing World 299      Chapter Thirteen: Wagon Dwellers of the Steppe: The Speakers of Proto-Indo-European 300  Why Not a Kurgan Culture? 306  Beyond the Eastern Frontier: The Afanasievo Migration to the Altai 307  Wagon Graves in the Steppes 311  Where Did the Yamnaya Horizon Begin? 317  When Did the Yamnaya Horizon Begin? 321  Were the Yamnaya People Nomads? 321  Yamnaya Social Organization 328  The Stone Stelae of the North Pontic Steppes 336      Chapter Fourteen: The Western Indo-European Languages 340  The End of the Cucuteni-Tripolye Culture and the Roots of the Western Branches 343  Steppe Overlords and Tripolye Clients: The Usatovo Culture 349  The Yamnaya Migration up the Danube Valley 361  Yamnaya Contacts with the Corded Ware Horizon 367  The Origins of Greek 368  Conclusion: The Early Western Indo-European Languages Disperse 369      Chapter Fifteen: Chariot Warriors of the Northern Steppes 371  The End of the Forest Frontier: Corded Ware Herders in the Forest 375  Pre-Sintashta Cultures of the Eastern Steppes 385  The Origin of the Sintashta Culture 389  Warfare in the Sintashta Culture: Fortifications and Weapons 393  Tournaments of Value 405  Sintashta and the Origins of the Aryans 408      Chapter Sixteen: The Opening of the Eurasian Steppes 412  Bronze Age Empires and the Horse Trade 412  The Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex 421  The Opening of the Eurasian Steppes 435  The Srubnaya Culture: Herding and Gathering in the Western Steppes 437  East of the Urals, Phase I: The Petrovka Culture 441  The Seima-Turbino Horizon in the Forest-Steppe Zone 443  East of the Urals, Phase II: The Andronovo Horizon 448  Proto-Vedic Cultures in the Central Asian Contact Zone 452  The Steppes Become a Bridge across Eurasia 456      Chapter Seventeen: Words and Deeds 458  The Horse and the Wheel 459  Archaeology and Language 463      Appendix: Author's Note on Radiocarbon Dates 467  Notes 471  References 507  Index 547

1 online resource (xii, 553 pages) : illustrations, maps

Argues that the domestication of the horse and the use of the wheel by the prehistoric peoples of the central Eurasian steppe grasslands facilitated the spread of the Proto-Indo-European language across most of the ancient world

The horse, the wheel, and language : how Bronze-Age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world